Vectors for use in an inducible coexpression system

ABSTRACT

The present invention provides expression vectors for use in an inducible coexpression system, capable of controlled induction of expression of each gene product.

REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 14/740,475, filed 16 Jun. 2015, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. application Ser. No. 14/419,653, which is a national-stage entry under 35 U.S.C. § 371 of International Application No. PCT/US2013/053562 filed 05 Aug. 2013, which claims the benefit of priority under 35 U.S.C. § 119(e) of U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/679,751, filed 05 Aug. 2012, and of U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/747,246, filed 29 Dec. 2012, the entire disclosures of all of which are incorporated by reference herein.

This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 14/740,475, filed 16 Jun. 2015, which is also a continuation-in-part of International Application No. PCT/US2014/014968 filed 05 Feb. 2014, which claims the priority of International Application No. PCT/US2013/053562 filed 05 Aug. 2013, which claims the benefit of priority under 35 U.S.C. § 119(e) of U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/679,751, filed 05 Aug. 2012, and of U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/747,246, filed 29 Dec. 2012, the entire disclosures of all of which are incorporated by reference herein.

REFERENCE TO THE SEQUENCE LISTING

This application includes a sequence listing submitted electronically, in a file entitled “AbSci001CIP1_ST25.txt”, created on May 26, 2015 and having a size of 82 kilobytes (KB), which is incorporated by reference herein.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention is in the general technical fields of molecular biology and biotechnological manufacturing. More particularly, the present invention is in the technical field of recombinant protein expression.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Production of biotechnological substances is a complex process, even more so when the desired product is a combination of molecules encoded by different genes, such as a multimeric protein formed from two or more different polypeptides. Successful coexpression of multiple gene products requires overcoming a number of challenges, which are compounded by the simultaneous expression of more than one gene product. Problems that must be overcome include creating compatible expression vectors when more than one type of vector is used; obtaining the correct stoichiometric ratio of products; producing gene products that are folded correctly and in the proper conformation with respect to binding partners; purifying the desired products away from cells and unwanted proteins, such as proteins that are folded incorrectly and/or are in an incorrect conformation; and minimizing the formation of inclusion bodies, as one aspect of maximizing the yield of the desired product(s). Many different approaches have been taken to address these challenges, but there is still a need for better coexpression methods.

Several inducible bacterial protein expression systems, including plasmids containing the lac and ara promoters, have been devised to express individual proteins. These systems have limited utility in the coexpression of difficult-to-express proteins as they fail to induce protein homogenously within the entire growth culture population in wild-type E. coli (Khlebnikov and Keasling, “Effect of lacY expression on homogeneity of induction from the P_(tac) and P_(trc) promoters by natural and synthetic inducers”, Biotechnol Prog 2002 May-Jun; 18(3): 672-674). When expression of the transport proteins for inducers is dependent on the presence of inducer, as is the case for wild-type E. coli lac and ara systems, the cellular concentration of the inducer must reach a threshold level to initiate the production of transport proteins, but once that threshold has been reached, an uncontrolled positive feedback loop can occur, with the result being a high level of inducer in the cell and correspondingly high levels of expression from inducible promoters: the “all-or-none” phenomenon. Increasing the concentration of the inducer in the growth medium increases the proportion of cells in the population that are in high-expression mode. Although this type of system results in concentration-dependent induction of protein expression at the population scale, it is suboptimal for expression and production of proteins that require tight control of expression, including those that are toxic, have poor solubility, or require specific concentrations for other reasons.

Some efforts have been made to address the “all-or-none” induction phenomenon in single-promoter expression systems, by eliminating inducer-dependent transport of the inducer. One example is having a null mutation in the lactose permease gene (lacYam) and using an alternate inducer of the lac promoter such as IPTG (isopropyl-thio-β-D-galactoside), which can get through the cell membrane to some degree in the absence of a transporter (Jensen et al., “The use of lac-type promoters in control analysis”, Eur J Biochem 1993 Jan. 15; 211(1-2): 181-191). Another approach is the use of an arabinose-inducible promoter in a strain deficient in the arabinose transporter genes, but with a mutation in the lactose permease gene, lacY(A117C), that allows it to transport arabinose into the cell (Morgan-Kiss et al., “Long-term and homogeneous regulation of the Escherichia coli araBAD promoter by use of a lactose transporter of relaxed specificity”, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2002 May 28; 99(11): 7373-7377).

The components of individual protein expression systems are often incompatible, precluding their use in coexpression systems, as they may be adversely affected by ‘crosstalk’ effects between different inducer-promoter systems, or require mutually exclusive genomic modifications, or be subject to general metabolic regulation. An attempt to address the ‘crosstalk’ problem between the lac and ara inducible promoter systems included directed evolution of the AraC transcriptional activator to improve its ability to induce the araBAD promoter in the presence of IPTG, an inducer of the lac promoter (Lee et al., “Directed evolution of AraC for improved compatibility of arabinose- and lactose-inducible promoters”, Appl Environ Microbiol 2007 Sep; 73(18): 5711-5715; Epub 2007 Jul. 20). However, the compatibility between expression vectors based on ara and lac inducible promoters is still limited due to the requirement for mutually exclusive genomic modifications: a lacY point mutation (lacY(A117C)) for homogenous induction of the araBAD promoter by arabinose, and a null lacY gene for homogenous induction of the lac promoter by IPTG. General metabolic regulation—for example, carbon catabolite repression (CCR)—can also affect the compatibility of inducible promoters. CCR is characterized by the repression of genes needed for utilization of a carbon-containing compound when a more preferred compound is present, as seen in the preferential use of glucose before other sugars. In the case of the ara and prp inducible promoter systems, the presence of arabinose reduces the ability of propionate to induce expression from the prpBCDE promoter, an effect believed to involve CCR (Park et al., “The mechanism of sugar-mediated catabolite repression of the propionate catabolic genes in Escherichia coli”, Gene 2012 Aug. 1; 504(1): 116-121, Epub 2012 May 3). There is clearly a need for an inducible coexpression system that overcomes these problems.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention provides expression constructs for use in inducible coexpression systems capable of controlled induction of each gene product component. One embodiment of the invention is an expression construct comprising two or more inducible promoters, wherein at least one of said inducible promoters is responsive to an inducer that is different than the inducer of another of said inducible promoters, and wherein none of the inducible promoters is an inducible promoter selected from the group consisting of: a tetracycline-inducible promoter, a copper-inducible promoter, and a methionine-inducible promoter. In some embodiments, the above expression construct does not comprise a lactose-inducible promoter, and in certain embodiments, the above expression construct does not comprise a promoter inducible by phosphate depletion. In additional embodiments, the expression construct is extrachromosomal. Further embodiments of the invention provide expression constructs comprising two or more inducible promoters, wherein at least one of said inducible promoters is responsive to an inducer that is different than the inducer of another of said inducible promoters, and (A) wherein each inducible promoter is selected from the group consisting of an L-arabinose-inducible promoter, a propionate-inducible promoter, a rhamnose-inducible promoter, a xylose-inducible promoter, a lactose-inducible promoter, and a promoter inducible by phosphate depletion; or (B) wherein at least one inducible promoter is selected from the group consisting of the araBAD promoter, the prpBCDE promoter, the rhaSR promoter, the xlyA promoter, the lacZYA promoter, and the phoA promoter; or (C) wherein the expression construct comprises at least one propionate-inducible promoter, which in some embodiments is the prpBCDE promoter, and at least one inducible promoter selected from the group consisting of an L-arabinose-inducible promoter, a rhamnose-inducible promoter, a xylose-inducible promoter, a lactose-inducible promoter, and a promoter inducible by phosphate depletion; or (D) wherein the expression construct comprises at least one L-arabinose-inducible promoter, which in some embodiments is the araBAD promoter, and at least one inducible promoter selected from the group consisting of a propionate-inducible promoter, a rhamnose-inducible promoter, a xylose-inducible promoter, a lactose-inducible promoter, and a promoter inducible by phosphate depletion; or (E) wherein at least one inducible promoter is a propionate-inducible promoter and at least one other inducible promoter is an L-arabinose-inducible promoter; or (F) wherein the expression construct comprises a nucleotide sequence having at least 80% (or at least 90%, or at least 95%) sequence identity to at least 50 (or at least 75, or at least 100) contiguous bases of nucleotides 4937 through 5185 of SEQ ID NO:15; or (G) wherein the expression construct comprises a nucleotide sequence having at least 80% (or at least 90%, or at least 95%) sequence identity to at least 50 (or at least 75, or at least 100) contiguous bases of nucleotides 2818 through 3151 of SEQ ID NO:15; or (H) wherein the expression construct comprises a nucleotide sequence having at least 80% (or at least 90%, or at least 95%) sequence identity to at least 50 (or at least 75, or at least 100) contiguous bases of nucleotides 2818 through 3151 of SEQ ID NO:15, and at least 80% (or at least 90%, or at least 95%) sequence identity to at least 50 (or at least 75, or at least 100) contiguous bases of nucleotides 4937 through 5185 of SEQ ID NO:15; or (I) wherein the expression construct comprises a nucleotide sequence having at least 80% (or at least 90%, or at least 95%) sequence identity to at least 3000 (or at least 3250) contiguous bases of nucleotides 1833 through 5304 of SEQ ID NO:15; or (J) wherein the expression construct comprises a nucleotide sequence having at least 80% (or at least 90%, or at least 95%) sequence identity to at least 5000 contiguous bases of SEQ ID NO:15; or (K) wherein the expression construct comprises nucleotides 1833 through 5304 of SEQ ID NO:15; or (L) wherein the expression construct comprises SEQ ID NO:15; or (M) wherein the expression construct further comprises a polynucleotide sequence encoding a transcriptional regulator that binds to an inducible promoter, wherein in some embodiments, the transcriptional regulator is selected from the group consisting of: AraC, PrpR, RhaR, and XylR; or (N) wherein the expression construct further comprises at least one polynucleotide sequence encoding at least one gene product to be transcribed from an inducible promoter.

Also provided by the invention is an expression construct comprising a nucleotide sequence selected from the group consisting of: (a) a nucleotide sequence having at least 97% sequence identity to at least 225 (or at least 240) contiguous bases of nucleotides 4937 through 5185 of SEQ ID NO:15; (b) a nucleotide sequence having at least 80% (or at least 90%, or at least 95%) sequence identity to at least 300 (or at least 350) contiguous bases of nucleotides 4937 through 5304 of SEQ ID NO:15; (c) a nucleotide sequence having at least 87% (or at least 90%, or at least 95%) sequence identity to at least 350 (or at least 375, or at least 400, or at least 425) contiguous bases of nucleotides 2818 through 3259 of SEQ ID NO:15; (d) a nucleotide sequence having at least 90% (or at least 95%) sequence identity to at least 400 (or at least 450, or at least 500) contiguous bases of nucleotides 10 through 1822 of SEQ ID NO:2; (e) nucleotides 2818 through 3259 of SEQ ID NO:15; (f) nucleotides 4937 through 5185 of SEQ ID NO:15; (g) nucleotides 2818 through 3259 of SEQ ID NO:15 and nucleotides 4937 through 5185 of SEQ ID NO:15; (h) nucleotides 10 through 1822 of SEQ ID NO:2; and (i) a nucleotide sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:2, SEQ ID NO:4, SEQ ID NO:5, SEQ ID NO:6, SEQ ID NO:7, SEQ ID NO:8, and SEQ ID NO:15. In certain embodiments of the invention, the above expression construct comprises an inducible promoter selected from the group consisting of an L-arabinose-inducible promoter, which in some embodiments is the araBAD promoter; a propionate-inducible promoter, which in some embodiments is the prpBCDE promoter; a rhamnose-inducible promoter, which in some embodiments is the rhaSR promoter; a xylose-inducible promoter, which in some embodiments is the xlyA promoter; a lactose-inducible promoter, which in some embodiments is the lacZYA promoter; and a promoter inducible by phosphate depletion, which in some embodiments is the phoA promoter; and in some embodiments, the above expression construct further comprises at least one polynucleotide sequence encoding at least one gene product to be transcribed from an inducible promoter.

In additional embodiments of the invention, an expression construct is produced by a method comprising a step of inserting a polynucleotide sequence into a plasmid selected from the group consisting of: pBAD240, pPRO43, pPRO44, pPRO45, pPRO430, pPRO430CloDF, and pSOL.

The present invention further provides a host cell comprising at least one expression construct of the invention as described in the above paragraphs, comprising at least one inducible promoter. In some embodiments of the invention, this host cell is a prokaryotic cell, and in some instances, it is an E. coli cell, which in certain embodiments is an E. coli ASE(DGH) cell. In other embodiments of the invention, the host cell is a eukaryotic cell, and in some instances it is a yeast cell, and in some further instances it is a Saccharomyces cerevisiae cell. Also provided by the invention is a host cell further comprising one or more of the following: (a) a deletion of the araBAD genes; (b) an altered gene function of the araE and araFGH genes; (c) a lacY(A177C) gene; (d) a reduced gene function of the prpB and prpD genes; (e) a reduced gene function of the sbm/scpA-ygfD/argK-ygfGH/scpBC genes; (f) a reduced gene function of the gor and trxB genes; (g) a reduced gene function of the AscG gene; (h) a polynucleotide encoding a form of DsbC lacking a signal peptide; (i) a polynucleotide encoding Erv1p; and (j) a polynucleotide encoding a chaperone. In certain additional embodiments, (A) the host cell has an alteration of gene function of at least one gene encoding a transporter protein for an inducer of at least one inducible promoter, and as another example, wherein the gene encoding the transporter protein is selected from the group consisting of araE, araF, araG, araH, rhaT, xylF, xylG, and xylH, or particularly is araE, or wherein the alteration of gene function more particularly is expression of araE from a constitutive promoter; (B) the host cell has a reduced level of gene function of at least one gene encoding a protein that metabolizes an inducer of at least one inducible promoter, and as further examples, wherein the gene encoding a protein that metabolizes an inducer of at least one said inducible promoter is selected from the group consisting of araA, araB, araD, prpB, prpD, rhaA, rhaB, rhaD, xylA, and xylB; and/or (C) the host cell has a reduced level of gene function of at least one gene encoding a protein involved in biosynthesis of an inducer of at least one inducible promoter, which gene in further embodiments is selected from the group consisting of scpA/sbm, argK/ygfD, scpB/ygfG, scpC/ygfH, rmlA, rmlB, rmlC, and rmlD.

In other aspects of the invention, a host cell is provided comprising two or more types of expression constructs, wherein the expression construct of each type comprises an inducible promoter, wherein the expression construct of each type comprises an inducible promoter that is not an inducible promoter of the expression construct of each other type, or wherein the expression construct of each type comprises an origin of replication that is different from the origin of replication of the expression construct of each other type.

In additional embodiments of the invention, at least one expression construct comprised by a host cell further comprises a polynucleotide sequence encoding a transcriptional regulator that binds to an inducible promoter; in some embodiments, the polynucleotide sequence encoding a transcriptional regulator and the inducible promoter to which said transcriptional regulator binds are in the same expression construct; and in further instances, the transcriptional regulator is selected from the group consisting of: AraC, PrpR, RhaR, and XylR; or in particular is AraC, or is PrpR.

A host cell is also provided by the invention, comprising at least one expression construct as described in the above paragraphs, which comprises at least one inducible promoter, wherein the at least one expression construct further comprises at least one polynucleotide sequence encoding at least one gene product to be transcribed from an inducible promoter. Other examples of the invention include a host cell comprising at least one expression construct comprising at least one inducible promoter and at least one polynucleotide sequence encoding a gene product to be transcribed from an inducible promoter, wherein in certain embodiments at least one gene product is a polypeptide, or is a polypeptide that lacks a signal sequence, or is a polypeptide that forms at least one and fewer than twenty disulfide bonds, or at least two and fewer than seventeen disulfide bonds, or at least eighteen and fewer than one hundred disulfide bonds, or at least three and fewer than ten disulfide bonds, or at least three and fewer than eight disulfide bonds, or is a polypeptide that forms a number of disulfide bonds selected from the group consisting of one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, and nine, or is an immunoglobulin heavy or light chain or a fragment thereof, or is an infliximab heavy or light chain or a fragment thereof.

Methods of producing gene products are also provided by the invention, such as by growing a culture of a host cell of the invention as described above; and in some embodiments by adding an inducer of at least one inducible promoter to the culture; and in further embodiments by purifying a gene product from the culture. In particular aspects of the invention, the gene product produced by the above method is a polypeptide that forms at least one disulfide bond, or forms at least two and fewer than seventeen disulfide bonds, or forms at least two and fewer than ten disulfide bonds, or forms a number of disulfide bonds selected from the group consisting of one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, and nine, or is an immunoglobulin heavy or light chain or a fragment thereof. The present invention also provides a gene product produced by the above method, wherein the gene product is a polypeptide that lacks a signal peptide, and that in certain embodiments forms at least one disulfide bond, or at least two and fewer than seventeen disulfide bonds, or at least eighteen and fewer than one hundred disulfide bonds, or at least three and fewer than ten disulfide bonds, or at least three and fewer than eight disulfide bonds, or forms a number of disulfide bonds selected from the group consisting of one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, and nine, or is an immunoglobulin heavy or light chain or a fragment thereof. A gene product produced by this method is also provided by the invention, and in some embodiments is part of a multimeric product, which in certain embodiments is an antibody, or in more particular instances, is an aglycosylated antibody, a chimeric antibody, or a human antibody.

Also provided by the systems and methods of the invention are kits comprising an expression construct as described in the above paragraphs; kits comprising a host cell, the host cell comprising at least one expression construct of the invention as described in the above paragraphs; and kits comprising a gene product or a multimeric product produced by growing a host cell of the invention, which in some embodiments includes adding at least one inducer to the culture, where in some embodiments the multimeric product is an antibody, or in more particular instances, is an aglycosylated antibody, a chimeric antibody, or a human antibody.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a schematic illustration of the inducible coexpression system, which includes a host cell (1) comprising two different inducible expression vectors (3) and (4), which express different gene products upon application of inducers (5), forming a multimeric product (6).

FIG. 2 is a schematic illustration of a particular use of the inducible coexpression system, in which the E. coli host cell genome (2) encodes a cytoplasmic form of the disulfide isomerase DsbC which lacks a signal peptide; the expression vector pBAD24 (or another expression vector containing an L-arabinose-inducible promoter, such as pBAD240) (3) provides L-arabinose-inducible expression of an immunoglobulin heavy chain, and the expression vector pPRO33 (or another expression vector containing a propionate-inducible promoter, such as pPRO43, pPRO430, pPRO430(CloDF13), pPRO44, or pPRO45) (4) provides propionate-inducible expression of an immunoglobulin light chain; forming upon induction (5) the multimeric antibody product (6).

FIG. 3 is a schematic illustration of an inducible coexpression system, which includes a host cell (1) comprising an inducible expression vector comprising two different inducible promoters (3) and (4), which express different gene products upon application of inducers (5), forming a multimeric product (6).

FIG. 4 is a schematic illustration of a particular use of the inducible coexpression system, in which the E. coli host cell genome (2) includes genetic alterations such as a cytoplasmic form of the disulfide isomerase DsbC which lacks a signal peptide; a multiple-promoter expression vector such as pSOL provides (3) L-arabinose-inducible expression of an immunoglobulin heavy chain and (4) propionate-inducible expression of an immunoglobulin light chain; forming upon induction (5) the multimeric antibody product (6).

FIG. 5 is a schematic representation of a vector (“dual vector”, also named “pSOL”) for use in an inducible coexpression system.

FIG. 6 shows a time course of coexpression of fluorescent proteins in bacterial cells; in this graph the fluorescence from a red fluorescent protein (RedFP), expressed from a propionate-inducible prpBCDE promoter, is shown. ‘pSOL’: pSOL-YellowFP-RedFP in E. coli ASE(DGH) cells. ‘pPRO, pBAD’: pBAD24-YellowFP/pPRO33-RedFP in E. coli ASE(DGH) cells. The inducer concentrations for each averaged group of samples are shown in the legend, with the propionate concentration listed first (0 mM, 5 mM, or 20 mM), followed by the L-arabinose concentration (0 micromolar, 6.66 micromolar, or 66.61 micromolar).

FIG. 7 shows a time course of coexpression of fluorescent proteins in bacterial cells; in this graph the fluorescence from a yellow fluorescent protein (YellowFP), expressed from an L-arabinose-inducible araBAD promoter, is shown. ‘pSOL’: pSOL-YellowFP-RedFP in E. coli ASE(DGH) cells. ‘pBAD, pPRO’: pBAD24-YellowFP/pPRO33-RedFP in E. coli ASE(DGH) cells. The inducer concentrations for each averaged group of samples are shown in the legend, with the L-arabinose concentration listed first (0 micromolar, 6.66 micromolar, or 66.61 micromolar), followed by the propionate concentration (0 mM, 5 mM, or 20 mM).

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The problem of incompatible coexpression system components is addressed by development of coordinated bacterial coexpression systems which utilize compatible homogenously inducible promoter systems located on separate expression constructs and, in some embodiments, activated by different inducers. The advantages of the present invention include, without limitation: 1) improved compatibility of components within the inducible coexpression system; 2) inducible expression of gene products that together form multimers, or other combinations of gene products (coexpression of two or more gene products); 3) improved control of gene product coexpression by independently titratible induction; 4) improved expression of gene product complexes and other products that are difficult to express such as multimeric products and products forming disulfide bonds; 5) streamlined optimization of gene product coexpression.

Coexpressed Gene Products. The inducible coexpression systems of the invention are designed to coexpress two or more different gene products that contribute to a desired product. The desired product can be a multimer, formed from coexpressed gene products, or coexpression can be used to produce a combination of the desired product plus an additional product or products that assist in expression of the desired product.

A ‘multimeric product’ refers to a set of gene products that coassemble to carry out the function of the multimeric product, and does not refer to transitory associations between gene products and other molecules, such as modifying enzymes (kinases, peptidases, and the like), chaperones, transporters, etc. In certain embodiments of the invention, the multimeric products are heteromultimers. In many embodiments, the coexpressed gene products will be polypeptides that are subunits of multimeric proteins. However, it is also possible to use the inducible coexpression systems of the invention to coexpress multiple different non-coding RNA molecules, or a combination of polypeptide and non-coding RNA gene products. Non-coding RNA molecules, also called non-protein-coding RNA (npcRNA), non-messenger RNA (nmRNA), and functional RNA (fRNA), include many different types of RNA molecules such as microRNAs that are not messenger RNAs and thus are not templates for the formation of polypeptides through translation.

Many biologically important products are formed from combinations of different polypeptide chains. In addition to antibodies and antibody fragments, other multimeric products that can be produced by the inducible coexpression methods of the invention include G-coupled protein receptors and ligand-gated ion channels such as nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, GABA_(A) receptors, glycine receptors, serotonin receptors, glutamate receptors, and ATP-gated receptors such as P2X receptors. The botulinum neurotoxin (often referred to as BoTN, BTX, or as one of its commercially available forms, BOTOX® (onabotulinumtoxinA)) is formed from a heavy chain and a light chain, linked by a disulfide bond (Simpson et al., “The role of the interchain disulfide bond in governing the pharmacological actions of botulinum toxin”, J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2004 Mar; 308(3): 857-864, Epub 2003 Nov. 14). Another example of a product formed from different polypeptide chains is insulin, which in eukaryotes is first translated as a single polypeptide chain, folded, and then cleaved ultimately into two polypeptide chains held together by disulfide bonds. Efficient production of botulinum neurotoxin or of mature insulin in a single host cell are examples of uses of the inducible coexpression methods of the invention.

The methods of the invention are designed to produce gene products that have been correctly folded and/or assembled into functional products, and that have a desired number of disulfide bonds in the desired locations within such functional products (which can be determined by methods such as that of Example 11). The number of disulfide bonds for a gene product such as a polypeptide is the total number of intramolecular and intermolecular bonds formed by that gene product when it is present in a desired functional product. For example, a light chain of a human IgG antibody typically has three disufide bonds (two intramolecular bonds and one intermolecular bond), and a heavy chain of a human IgG antibody typically has seven disufide bonds (four intramolecular bonds and three intermolecular bonds). In some embodiments, desired gene products are coexpressed with other gene products, such as chaperones, that are beneficial to the production of the desired gene product. Chaperones are proteins that assist the non-covalent folding or unfolding, and/or the assembly or disassembly, of other gene products, but do not occur in the resulting monomeric or multimeric gene product structures when the structures are performing their normal biological functions (having completed the processes of folding and/or assembly). Chaperones can be expressed from an inducible promoter or a constitutive promoter within an expression construct, or can be expressed from the host cell chromosome; preferably, expression of chaperone protein(s) in the host cell is at a sufficiently high level to produce coexpressed gene products that are properly folded and/or assembled into the desired product. Examples of chaperones present in E. coli host cells are the folding factors DnaK/DnaJ/GrpE, DsbC/DsbG, GroEL/GroES, IbpA/IbpB, Skp, Tig (trigger factor), and FkpA, which have been used to prevent protein aggregation of cytoplasmic or periplasmic proteins. DnaK/DnaJ/GrpE, GroEL/GroES, and CIpB can function synergistically in assisting protein folding and therefore expression of these chaperones in combinations has been shown to be beneficial for protein expression (Makino et al., “Strain engineering for improved expression of recombinant proteins in bacteria”, Microb Cell Fact 2011 May 14; 10: 32). When expressing eukaryotic proteins in prokaryotic host cells, a eukaryotic chaperone protein, such as protein disulfide isomerase (PDI) from the same or a related eukaryotic species, is coexpressed or inducibly coexpressed with the desired gene product in certain embodiments of the invention.

Inducible Promoters. The following is a description of inducible promoters that can be used in expression constructs for coexpression of gene products, along with some of the genetic modifications that can be made to host cells that contain such expression constructs. Examples of these inducible promoters and related genes are, unless otherwise specified, from Escherichia coli (E. coli) strain MG1655 (American Type Culture Collection deposit ATCC 700926), which is a substrain of E. coli K-12 (American Type Culture Collection deposit ATCC 10798). Table 1 lists the genomic locations, in E. coli MG1655, of the nucleotide sequences for these examples of inducible promoters and related genes. Nucleotide and other genetic sequences, referenced by genomic location as in Table 1, are expressly incorporated by reference herein. Additional information about E. coli promoters, genes, and strains described herein can be found in many public sources, including the online EcoliWiki resource, located at ecoliwiki.net.

-   -   Arabinose promoter. (As used herein, ‘arabinose’ means         L-arabinose.) Several E. coli operons involved in arabinose         utilization are inducible by arabinose—araBAD, araC, araE, and         araFGH—but the terms ‘arabinose promoter’ and ‘ara promoter’ are         typically used to designate the araBAD promoter. Several         additional terms have been used to indicate the E. coli araBAD         promoter, such as P_(ara), P_(araB), P_(araBAD), and P_(BAD).         The use herein of ‘ara promoter’ or any of the alternative terms         given above, means the E. coli araBAD promoter. As can be seen         from the use of another term, ‘araC-araBAD promoter’, the araBAD         promoter is considered to be part of a bidirectional promoter,         with the araBAD promoter controlling expression of the araBAD         operon in one direction, and the araC promoter, in close         proximity to and on the opposite strand from the araBAD         promoter, controlling expression of the araC coding sequence in         the other direction. The AraC protein is both a positive and a         negative transcriptional regulator of the araBAD promoter. In         the absence of arabinose, the AraC protein represses         transcription from P_(BAD), but in the presence of arabinose,         the AraC protein, which alters its conformation upon binding         arabinose, becomes a positive regulatory element that allows         transcription from P_(BAD). The araBAD operon encodes proteins         that metabolize L-arabinose by converting it, through the         intermediates L-ribulose and L-ribulose-phosphate, to         D-xylulose-5-phosphate. For the purpose of maximizing induction         of expression from an arabinose-inducible promoter, it is useful         to eliminate or reduce the function of AraA, which catalyzes the         conversion of L-arabinose to L-ribulose, and optionally to         eliminate or reduce the function of at least one of AraB and         AraD, as well. Eliminating or reducing the ability of host cells         to decrease the effective concentration of arabinose in the         cell, by eliminating or reducing the cell's ability to convert         arabinose to other sugars, allows more arabinose to be available         for induction of the arabinose-inducible promoter. The genes         encoding the transporters which move arabinose into the host         cell are araE, which encodes the low-affinity L-arabinose proton         symporter, and the araFGH operon, which encodes the subunits of         an ABC superfamily high-affinity L-arabinose transporter. Other         proteins which can transport L-arabinose into the cell are         certain mutants of the LacY lactose permease: the LacY(A177C)         and the LacY(A177V) proteins, having a cysteine or a valine         amino acid instead of alanine at position 177, respectively         (Morgan-Kiss et al., “Long-term and homogeneous regulation of         the Escherichia coli araBAD promoter by use of a lactose         transporter of relaxed specificity”, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A         2002 May 28; 99(11): 7373-7377). In order to achieve homogenous         induction of an arabinose-inducible promoter, it is useful to         make transport of arabinose into the cell independent of         regulation by arabinose. This can be accomplished by eliminating         or reducing the activity of the AraFGH transporter proteins and         altering the expression of araE so that it is only transcribed         from a constitutive promoter. Constitutive expression of araE         can be accomplished by eliminating or reducing the function of         the native araE gene, and introducing into the cell an         expression construct which includes a coding sequence for the         AraE protein expressed from a constitutive promoter.         Alternatively, in a cell lacking AraFGH function, the promoter         controlling expression of the host cell's chromosomal araE gene         can be changed from an arabinose-inducible promoter to a         constitutive promoter. In similar manner, as additional         alternatives for homogenous induction of an arabinose-inducible         promoter, a host cell that lacks AraE function can have any         functional AraFGH coding sequence present in the cell expressed         from a constitutive promoter. As another alternative, it is         possible to express both the araE gene and the araFGH operon         from constitutive promoters, by replacing the native araE and         araFGH promoters with constitutive promoters in the host         chromosome. It is also possible to eliminate or reduce the         activity of both the AraE and the AraFGH arabinose transporters,         and in that situation to use a mutation in the LacY lactose         permease that allows this protein to transport arabinose. Since         expression of the lacY gene is not normally regulated by         arabinose, use of a LacY mutant such as LacY(A177C) or         LacY(A177V), will not lead to the ‘all or none’ induction         phenomenon when the arabinose-inducible promoter is induced by         the presence of arabinose. Because the LacY(A177C) protein         appears to be more effective in transporting arabinose into the         cell, use of polynucleotides encoding the LacY(A177C) protein is         preferred to the use of polynucleotides encoding the LacY(A177V)         protein.     -   Propionate promoter. The ‘propionate promoter’ or ‘prp promoter’         is the promoter for the E. coli prpBCDE operon, and is also         called P_(prpB). Like the ara promoter, the prp promoter is part         of a bidirectional promoter, controlling expression of the         prpBCDE operon in one direction, and with the prpR promoter         controlling expression of the prpR coding sequence in the other         direction. The PrpR protein is the transcriptional regulator of         the prp promoter, and activates transcription from the prp         promoter when the PrpR protein binds 2-methylcitrate (‘2-MC’).         Propionate (also called propanoate) is the ion, CH₃CH₂CO⁻, of         propionic acid (or ‘propanoic acid’), and is the smallest of the         ‘fatty’ acids having the general formula H(CH₂)_(n)COOH that         shares certain properties of this class of molecules: producing         an oily layer when salted out of water and having a soapy         potassium salt. Commercially available propionate is generally         sold as a monovalent cation salt of propionic acid, such as         sodium propionate (CH₃CH₂COONa), or as a divalent cation salt,         such as calcium propionate (Ca(CH₃CH₂COO)₂). Propionate is         membrane-permeable and is metabolized to 2-MC by conversion of         propionate to propionyl-CoA by PrpE (propionyl-CoA synthetase),         and then conversion of propionyl-CoA to 2-MC by PrpC         (2-methylcitrate synthase). The other proteins encoded by the         prpBCDE operon, PrpD (2-methylcitrate dehydratase) and PrpB         (2-methylisocitrate lyase), are involved in further catabolism         of 2-MC into smaller products such as pyruvate and succinate. In         order to maximize induction of a propionate-inducible promoter         by propionate added to the cell growth medium, it is therefore         desirable to have a host cell with PrpC and PrpE activity, to         convert propionate into 2-MC, but also having eliminated or         reduced PrpD activity, and optionally eliminated or reduced PrpB         activity as well, to prevent 2-MC from being metabolized.         Another operon encoding proteins involved in 2-MC biosynthesis         is the scpA-argK-scpBC operon, also called the sbm-ygfDGH         operon. These genes encode proteins required for the conversion         of succinate to propionyl-CoA, which can then be converted to         2-MC by PrpC. Elimination or reduction of the function of these         proteins would remove a parallel pathway for the production of         the 2-MC inducer, and thus might reduce background levels of         expression of a propionate-inducible promoter, and increase         sensitivity of the propionate-inducible promoter to exogenously         supplied propionate. It has been found that a deletion of         sbm-ygfD-ygfG-ygfH-ygfI, introduced into E. coli BL21(DE3) to         create strain JSB (Lee and Keasling, “A propionate-inducible         expression system for enteric bacteria”, Appl Environ Microbiol         2005 Nov; 71(11): 6856-6862), was helpful in reducing background         expression in the absence of exogenously supplied inducer, but         this deletion also reduced overall expression from the prp         promoter in strain JSB. It should be noted, however, that the         deletion sbm-ygfD-ygfG-ygfH-ygfI also apparently affects ygfI,         which encodes a putative LysR-family transcriptional regulator         of unknown function. The genes sbm-ygfDGH are transcribed as one         operon, and ygfI is transcribed from the opposite strand. The 3′         ends of the ygfH and ygfI coding sequences overlap by a few base         pairs, so a deletion that takes out all of the sbm-ygfDGH operon         apparently takes out ygfI coding function as well. Eliminating         or reducing the function of a subset of the sbm-ygfDGH gene         products, such as YgfG (also called ScpB, methylmalonyl-CoA         decarboxylase), or deleting the majority of the sbm-ygfDGH (or         scpA-argK-scpBC) operon while leaving enough of the 3′ end of         the ygfH (or scpC) gene so that the expression of ygfI is not         affected, could be sufficient to reduce background expression         from a propionate-inducible promoter without reducing the         maximal level of induced expression.     -   Rhamnose promoter. (As used herein, ‘rhamnose’ means         L-rhamnose.) The ‘rhamnose promoter’ or ‘rha promoter’, or         P_(rhaSR), is the promoter for the E. coli rhaSR operon. Like         the ara and prp promoters, the rha promoter is part of a         bidirectional promoter, controlling expression of the rhaSR         operon in one direction, and with the rhaBAD promoter         controlling expression of the rhaBAD operon in the other         direction. The rha promoter, however, has two transcriptional         regulators involved in modulating expression: RhaR and RhaS. The         RhaR protein activates expression of the rhaSR operon in the         presence of rhamnose, while RhaS protein activates expression of         the L-rhamnose catabolic and transport operons, rhaBAD and rhaT,         respectively (Wickstrum et al., “The AraC/XylS family activator         RhaS negatively autoregulates rhaSR expression by preventing         cyclic AMP receptor protein activation”, J Bacteriol 2010 Jan;         192(1): 225-232). Although the RhaS protein can also activate         expression of the rhaSR operon, in effect RhaS negatively         autoregulates this expression by interfering with the ability of         the cyclic AMP receptor protein (CRP) to coactivate expression         with RhaR to a much greater level. The rhaBAD operon encodes the         rhamnose catabolic proteins RhaA (L-rhamnose isomerase), which         converts L-rhamnose to L-rhamnulose; RhaB (rhamnulokinase),         which phosphorylates L-rhamnulose to form L-rhamnulose-1-P; and         RhaD (rhamnulose-1-phosphate aldolase), which converts         L-rhamnulose-1-P to L-lactaldehyde and DHAP (dihydroxyacetone         phosphate). To maximize the amount of rhamnose in the cell         available for induction of expression from a rhamnose-inducible         promoter, it is desirable to reduce the amount of rhamnose that         is broken down by catalysis, by eliminating or reducing the         function of RhaA, or optionally of RhaA and at least one of RhaB         and RhaD. E. coli cells can also synthesize L-rhamnose from         alpha-D-glucose-1-P through the activities of the proteins RmlA,         RmlB, RmlC, and RmlD (also called RfbA, RfbB, RfbC, and RfbD,         respectively) encoded by the rmlBDACX (or rfbBDACX) operon. To         reduce background expression from a rhamnose-inducible promoter,         and to enhance the sensitivity of induction of the         rhamnose-inducible promoter by exogenously supplied rhamnose, it         could be useful to eliminate or reduce the function of one or         more of the RmlA, RmlB, RmlC, and RmlD proteins. L-rhamnose is         transported into the cell by RhaT, the rhamnose permease or         L-rhamnose:proton symporter. As noted above, the expression of         RhaT is activated by the transcriptional regulator RhaS. To make         expression of RhaT independent of induction by rhamnose (which         induces expression of RhaS), the host cell can be altered so         that all functional RhaT coding sequences in the cell are         expressed from constitutive promoters. Additionally, the coding         sequences for RhaS can be deleted or inactivated, so that no         functional RhaS is produced. By eliminating or reducing the         function of RhaS in the cell, the level of expression from the         rhaSR promoter is increased due to the absence of negative         autoregulation by RhaS, and the level of expression of the         rhamnose catalytic operon rhaBAD is decreased, further         increasing the ability of rhamnose to induce expression from the         rha promoter.     -   Xylose promoter. (As used herein, ‘xylose’ means D-xylose.) The         xylose promoter, or ‘xyl promoter’, or P_(xyl), means the         promoter for the E. coli xylAB operon. The xylose promoter         region is similar in organization to other inducible promoters         in that the xylAB operon and the xylFGHR operon are both         expressed from adjacent xylose-inducible promoters in opposite         directions on the E. coli chromosome (Song and Park,         “Organization and regulation of the D-xylose operons in         Escherichia coli K-12: XylR acts as a transcriptional         activator”, J Bacteriol. 1997 Nov; 179(22): 7025-7032). The         transcriptional regulator of both the P_(xylA) and P_(xylF)         promoters is XyIR, which activates expression of these promoters         in the presence of xylose. The xylR gene is expressed either as         part of the xylFGHR operon or from its own weak promoter, which         is not inducible by xylose, located between the xylH and xylR         protein-coding sequences. D-xylose is catabolized by XylA         (D-xylose isomerase), which converts D-xylose to D-xylulose,         which is then phosphorylated by XylB (xylulokinase) to form         D-xylulose-5-P. To maximize the amount of xylose in the cell         available for induction of expression from a xylose-inducible         promoter, it is desirable to reduce the amount of xylose that is         broken down by catalysis, by eliminating or reducing the         function of at least XylA, or optionally of both XylA and XylB.         The xylFGHR operon encodes XylF, XyIG, and XylH, the subunits of         an ABC super-family high-affinity D-xylose transporter. The xylE         gene, which encodes the E. coli low-affinity xylose-proton         symporter, represents a separate operon, the expression of which         is also inducible by xylose. To make expression of a xylose         transporter independent of induction by xylose, the host cell         can be altered so that all functional xylose transporters are         expressed from constitutive promoters. For example, the xylFGHR         operon could be altered so that the xylFGH coding sequences are         deleted, leaving XylR as the only active protein expressed from         the xylose-inducible P_(xylF) promoter, and with the xylE coding         sequence expressed from a constitutive promoter rather than its         native promoter. As another example, the xylR coding sequence is         expressed from the P_(xylA) or the P_(xylF) promoter in an         expression construct, while either the xylFGHR operon is deleted         and xylE is constitutively expressed, or alternatively an xylFGH         operon (lacking the xylR coding sequence since that is present         in an expression construct) is expressed from a constitutive         promoter and the xylE coding sequence is deleted or altered so         that it does not produce an active protein.     -   Lactose promoter. The term ‘lactose promoter’ refers to the         lactose-inducible promoter for the lacZYA operon, a promoter         which is also called lacZp1; this lactose promoter is located at         ca. 365603-365568 (minus strand, with the RNA polymerase binding         (‘-35’) site at ca. 365603-365598, the Pribnow box (‘-10’) at         365579-365573, and a transcription initiation site at 365567) in         the genomic sequence of the E. coli K-12 substrain MG1655 (NCBI         Reference Sequence NC_000913.2, 11 Jan. 2012). In some         embodiments, inducible coexpression systems of the invention can         comprise a lactose-inducible promoter such as the lacZYA         promoter. In other embodiments, the inducible coexpression         systems of the invention comprise one or more inducible         promoters that are not lactose-inducible promoters.     -   Alkaline phosphatase promoter. The terms ‘alkaline phosphatase         promoter’ and ‘phoA promoter’ refer to the promoter for the         phoApsiF operon, a promoter which is induced under conditions of         phosphate starvation. The phoA promoter region is located at ca.         401647-401746 (plus strand, with the Pribnow box (‘-10’) at         401695-401701 (Kikuchi et al., “The nucleotide sequence of the         promoter and the amino-terminal region of alkaline phosphatase         structural gene (phoA) of Escherichia coli”, Nucleic Acids Res         1981 Nov. 11; 9(21): 5671-5678)) in the genomic sequence of         the E. coli K-12 substrain MG1655 (NCBI Reference Sequence         NC_000913.3, 16-DEC-2014). The transcriptional activator for the         phoA promoter is PhoB, a transcriptional regulator that, along         with the sensor protein PhoR, forms a two-component signal         transduction system in E. coli. PhoB and PhoR are transcribed         from the phoBR operon, located at ca. 417050-419300 (plus         strand, with the PhoB coding sequence at 417,142-417,831 and the         PhoR coding sequence at 417,889-419,184) in the genomic sequence         of the E. coli K-12 substrain MG1655 (NCBI Reference Sequence         NC_000913.3, 16 Dec. 2014). The phoA promoter differs from the         inducible promoters described above in that it is induced by the         lack of a substance—intracellular phosphate—rather than by the         addition of an inducer. For this reason the phoA promoter is         generally used to direct transcription of gene products that are         to be produced at a stage when the host cells are depleted for         phosphate, such as the later stages of fermentation. In some         embodiments, inducible coexpression systems of the invention can         comprise a phoA promoter. In other embodiments, the inducible         coexpression systems of the invention comprise one or more         inducible promoters that are not phoA promoters.

TABLE 1 Genomic Locations of E. coli Inducible Promoters and Related Genes [1] Promoter Genomic or Gene Location: Comments: araBAD [2] (ca. 70165)- Smith and Schleif [3]: RNA pol [4] binding (‘−35’) promoter 70074 70110-70104, Pribnow box (‘−10’) 70092-70085 (minus strand) araBAD 70075-65855 Smith and Schleif [3]: transcript start 70075, araB operon (minus strand) ATG 70048; NCBI: araB end of TAA 68348; araA ATG 68337, end of TAA 66835; araD ATG 66550, end of TAA 65855 araC [2] (ca. 70166)- Smith and Schleif [3]: RNA pol binding (‘−35’) promoter 70241 70210-7021, Pribnow box (‘−10’) 70230-70236 (plus strand) araC 70242-71265 Miyada [5]: transcript start 70242, araC ATG 70387; gene (plus strand) NCBI: end of TAA 71265 araE [2] (ca. 2980349)- Stoner and Schleif [6]: CRP binding 2980349-2980312, promoter 2980231 RNA pol binding (‘−35’) 2980269-2980264, (minus strand) Pribnow box (‘−10’) 2980244-2980239 araE 2980230-2978786 Stoner and Schleif [6]: transcript start 2980230, gene (minus strand) ATG 2980204; NCBI: end of TGA 2978786 araFGH [2] (ca. 1984423)- Hendrickson [7]: AraC binding ca. 1984423-ca. promoter 1984264 1984414 and 1984326-1984317, CRP binding 1984315- (minus strand) 1984297, RNA pol binding (‘−35’) 1984294- 1984289, Pribnow box (‘−10’) 1984275-1984270 araFGH 1984263-1980578 Hendrickson [7]: transcript start 1984263; NCBI: operon (minus strand) araF ATG 1984152, end of TAA 1983163; araG ATG 1983093, end of TGA 1981579; araH ATG 1981564, end of TGA 1980578 lacY 362403-361150 Expressed as part of the lacZYA operon. NCBI: ATG gene (minus strand) 362403, end of TAA 361150 prpBCDE [2] ca. 347790- Keasling [8]: RNA pol binding (‘−24’) 347844-347848, promoter ca. 347870 Pribnow box (‘−12’) 347855-347859 (plus strand) prpBCDE (ca. 347871)- Keasling [8]: inferred transcript start ca. 347871, prpB operon 353816 ATG 347906; NCBI: prpB end of TAA 348796; prpC (plus strand) ATG 349236, end of TAA 350405; prpD ATG 350439, end of TAA 351890; prpE ATG 351930, end of TAG 353816 prpR [2] ca. 347789- Keasling [8]: CRP binding 347775-347753, RNA pol promoter ca. 347693 binding (‘−35’) 347728-347723, Pribnow box (‘−10’) (minus strand) 347707-347702 prpR (ca. 347692)- Keasling [8]: inferred transcript start ca. 347692, prpR gene 346081 ATG 347667; NCBI: end of TGA 346081 (minus strand) scpA-argK-scpBC 3058872-3064302 NCBI: scpA ATG 3058872, end of TAA 3061016; (or sbm-ygfDGH) (plus strand) argK ATG 3061009, end of TAA 3062004; scpB ATG operon 3062015, end of TAA 3062800; scpC ATG 3062824, end of TAA 3064302 rhaBAD [2] (ca. 4095605)- Wickstrum [9]: CRP binding 4095595-4095580, RNA promoter 4095496 pol binding (‘−35’) 4095530-4095525, Pribnow box (minus strand) (‘−10’) 4095506-4095501 rhaBAD 4095495-4091471 Wickstrum [9]: transcript start 4095495, rhaB ATG operon (minus strand) 4095471; NCBI: rhaB end of TGA 4094002; rhaA ATG 4094005, end of TAA 4092746; rhaD ATG 4092295, end of TAA 4091471 rhaSR [2] (ca. 4095606)- Wickstrum [9]: CRP binding 4095615-4095630, RNA promoter 4095733 pol binding (‘−35’) 4095699-4095704, Pribnow box (plus strand) (‘−10’) 4095722-4095727 rhaSR 4095734-4097517 Wickstrum [9]: transcript start 4095734, rhaS ATG operon (plus strand) 4095759; NCBI: rhaS end of TAA 4096595; rhaR ATG 4096669, end of TAA 4097517 rfbBDACX (or 2111085-2106361 NCBI: rfbB GTG 2111085, end of TAA 2110000; rfbD rmlBDACX) (minus strand) ATG 2110000, end of TAA 2109101; rfbA ATG operon 2109043, end of TAA 2108162; rfbC ATG 2108162, end of TGA 2107605; rfbX ATG 2107608, end of TGA 2106361 rhaT [2] (ca. 4098690)- Vía [10]: CRP binding 4098690-4098675, RNA pol promoter 4098590 binding (‘−35’) 4098621-4098616, Pribnow box (‘−10’) (minus strand) 4098601-4098596 rhaT 4098589-4097514 Vía [10]: transcript start 4098589, rhaT ATG 4098548; gene (minus strand) NCBI: rhaT end of TAA 4097514 xylAB [2] (ca. 3728960)- Song and Park [11]: CRP binding 3728919-3728901, promoter 3728831 RNA pol binding (‘−35’) 3728865-3728860, Pribnow (minus strand) box (‘−10’) 3728841-3728836 xylAB 3728830-3725940 Song and Park [11]: transcript start 3728830, xylA operon (minus strand) ATG 3728788; NCBI: xylA end of TAA 3727466; xylB ATG 3727394, end of TAA 3725940 xylFGHR [2] (ca. 3728961)- Song and Park [11]: RNA pol binding (‘−35’) promoter 3729091 3729058-3729063, Pribnow box (‘−10’) (plus strand) 3729080-3729085 xylFGHR 3729092-3734180 Song and Park [11]: transcript start 3729092, xylF operon (plus strand) ATG 3729154; NCBI: xylF end of TAA 3730146, xylG ATG 3730224, end of TGA 3731765; xylH ATG 3731743, end of TGA 3732924; xylR ATG 3733002, end of TAG 3734180 xylE [2] ca. 4240482- Davis and Henderson [12]: possible Pribnow box promoter ca. 4240320 (‘−10’) 4240354-4240349, possible Pribnow box (‘−10’) (minus strand) 4240334-4240329 xylE (ca. 4240319)- Davis and Henderson [12]: inferred transcript start ca. gene 4238802 4240319, xylE ATG 4240277, end of TAA 4238802 (minus strand) Notes for Table 1: [1] All genomic sequence locations refer to the genomic sequence of E. coli K-12 substrain MG1655, provided by the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) as NCBI Reference Sequence NC_000913.2, 11 JAN. 2012. [2] The location of the 5′ (or ‘upstream’) end of the promoter region is approximated; for ‘bidirectional’ promoters, a nucleotide sequence location that is approximately equidistant between the transcription start sites is selected as the designated 5′ ‘end’ for both of the individual promoters. In practice, the promoter portion of an expression construct can have somewhat less sequence at its 5′ end than the promoter sequences as indicated in the table, or it can have a nucleotide sequence that includes additional sequence from the region 5′ (or ‘upstream’) of the promoter sequences as indicated in the table, as long as it retains the ability to promote transcription of a downstream coding sequence in an inducible fashion. [3] Smith and Schleif, “Nucleotide sequence of the L-arabinose regulatory region of Escherichia coli K12”, J Biol Chem 1978 Oct. 10; 253(19): 6931-6933. [4] ‘RNA pol’ indicates RNA polymerase throughout the table. [5] Miyada, et al., “DNA sequence of the araC regulatory gene from Escherichia coli B/r”, Nucleic Acids Res 1980 Nov. 25; 8(22): 5267-5274. [6] Stoner and Schleif, “E. coli araE regulatory region araE codes for the low affinity L-arabinose uptake protein”, GenBank Database Accession X00272.1, revision date 6 JUL. 1989. [7] Hendrickson et al., “Sequence elements in the Escherichia coli araFGH promoter”, J Bacteriol 1992 November; 174(21): 6862-6871. [8] U.S. Pat. No. 8,178,338 B2; May 15, 2012; Keasling, Jay; FIG. 9. [9] Wickstrum et al., “The AraC/XylS family activator RhaS negatively autoregulates rhaSR expression by preventing cyclic AMP receptor protein activation”, J Bacteriol 2010 January; 192(1): 225-232. [10] Vía et al., “Transcriptional regulation of the Escherichia coli rhaT gene”, Microbiology 1996 July; 142(Pt 7): 1833-1840. [11] Song and Park, “Organization and regulation of the D-xylose operons in Escherichia coli K-12: XylR acts as a transcriptional activator”, J Bacteriol. 1997 November; 179(22): 7025-7032. [12] Davis and Henderson, “The cloning and DNA sequence of the gene xylE for xylose-proton symport in Escherichia coli K12”, J Biol Chem 1987 Oct. 15; 262(29): 13928-13932.

Expression Constructs. Expression constructs are polynucleotides designed for the expression of one or more gene products of interest, and thus are not naturally occurring molecules. Expression constructs can be integrated into a host cell chromosome, or maintained within the host cell as polynucleotide molecules replicating independently of the host cell chromosome, such as plasmids or artificial chromosomes. An example of an expression construct is a polynucleotide resulting from the insertion of one or more polynucleotide sequences into a host cell chromosome, where the inserted polynucleotide sequences alter the expression of chromosomal coding sequences. An expression vector is a plasmid expression construct specifically used for the expression of one or more gene products. One or more expression constructs can be integrated into a host cell chromosome or be maintained on an extrachromosomal polynucleotide such as a plasmid or artificial chromosome. The following are descriptions of particular types of polynucleotide sequences that can be used in expression constructs for the coexpression of gene products.

-   -   Origins of replication. Expression constructs must comprise an         origin of replication, also called a replicon, in order to be         maintained within the host cell as independently replicating         polynucleotides. Different replicons that use the same mechanism         for replication cannot be maintained together in a single host         cell through repeated cell divisions. As a result, plasmids can         be categorized into incompatibility groups depending on the         origin of replication that they contain, as shown in Table 2.

TABLE 2 Origins of Replication and Representative Plasmids for Use in Expression Constructs [1] Origin Incompati- of Rep- Copy Representative Plasmids bility Group: lication: Number: (ATCC Deposit No.): colE1, pMB1 colE1 15-20 colE1 (ATCC 27138) pMB1 15-20 pBR322 (ATCC 31344) Modified 500-700 pUC9 (ATCC 37252) pMB1 IncFII, pT181 R1(ts)  15-120 pMOB45 (ATCC 37106) F, P1, p15A, p15A 18-22 pACYC177 (ATCC 37031); pSC101, R6K, pACYC184 (ATCC 37033); RK2 [2] pPRO33 (Addgene 17810) [3] pSC101 ~5  pSC101 (ATCC 37032): pGBM1 (ATCC 87497) RK2    4-7 [2] RK2 (ATCC 37125) CloDF13 [4] CloDF13    20-40 [4] pCDFDuet ™-1 (EMD Millipore Catalog No. 71340-3) ColA [4] ColA    20-40 [4] pCOLADuet ™-1 (EMD Millipore Catalog No. 71406-3) RSF1030 [4] RSF1030 >100 [4] pRSFDuet ™-1 (EMD (also Millipore Catalog called No. 71341-3) NTP1) Notes for Table 2: [1] Adapted from www.bio.davidson.edu/courses/Molbio/Protocols/ORIs.html, and Sambrook and Russell, “Molecular Cloning: A laboratory manual”, 3^(rd) Ed., Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 2001. [2] Kües and Stahl, “Replication of plasmids in gram-negative bacteria”, Microbiol Rev 1989 December; 53(4): 491-516. [3] The pPRO33 plasmid (U.S. Pat. No. 8,178,338 B2; May 15, 2012; Keasling, Jay) is available from Addgene (www.addgene.org) as Addgene plasmid 17810. [4] openwetware.org/wiki/CH391L/S12/Origins_of_Replication; accessed 3 Aug. 2013.

Origins of replication can be selected for use in expression constructs on the basis of incompatibility group, copy number, and/or host range, among other criteria. As described above, if two or more different expression constructs are to be used in the same host cell for the coexpression of multiple gene products, it is best if the different expression constructs contain origins of replication from different incompatibility groups: a pMB1 replicon in one expression construct and a p15A replicon in another, for example. The average number of copies of an expression construct in the cell, relative to the number of host chromosome molecules, is determined by the origin of replication contained in that expression construct. Copy number can range from a few copies per cell to several hundred (Table 2). In one embodiment of the invention, different expression constructs are used which comprise inducible promoters that are activated by the same inducer, but which have different origins of replication. By selecting origins of replication that maintain each different expression construct at a certain approximate copy number in the cell, it is possible to adjust the levels of overall production of a gene product expressed from one expression construct, relative to another gene product expressed from a different expression construct. As an example, to coexpress subunits A and B of a multimeric protein, an expression construct is created which comprises the colE1 replicon, the ara promoter, and a coding sequence for subunit A expressed from the ara promoter: ‘colE1-P_(ara)-A^(’). Another expression construct is created comprising the p15A replicon, the ara promoter, and a coding sequence for subunit B: ‘p15A-P_(ara)-B’. These two expression constructs can be maintained together in the same host cells, and expression of both subunits A and B is induced by the addition of one inducer, arabinose, to the growth medium. If the expression level of subunit A needed to be significantly increased relative to the expression level of subunit B, in order to bring the stoichiometric ratio of the expressed amounts of the two subunits closer to a desired ratio, for example, a new expression construct for subunit A could be created, having a modified pMB1 replicon as is found in the origin of replication of the pUC9 plasmid (‘pUC9ori’): pUC9ori-P_(ara)-A. Expressing subunit A from a high-copy-number expression construct such as pUC9ori-P_(ara)-A should increase the amount of subunit A produced relative to expression of subunit B from p15A-P_(ara)-B. In a similar fashion, use of an origin of replication that maintains expression constructs at a lower copy number, such as pSC101, could reduce the overall level of a gene product expressed from that construct. Selection of an origin of replication can also determine which host cells can maintain an expression construct comprising that replicon. For example, expression constructs comprising the colE1 origin of replication have a relatively narrow range of available hosts, species within the Enterobacteriaceae family, while expression constructs comprising the RK2 replicon can be maintained in E. coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Pseudomonas putida, Azotobacter vinelandii, and Alcaligenes eutrophus, and if an expression construct comprises the RK2 replicon and some regulator genes from the RK2 plasmid, it can be maintained in host cells as diverse as Sinorhizobium meliloti, Agrobacterium tumefaciens, Caulobacter crescentus, Acinetobacter calcoaceticus, and Rhodobacter sphaeroides (Kues and Stahl, “Replication of plasmids in gram-negative bacteria”, Microbiol Rev 1989 Dec; 53(4): 491-516).

Similar considerations can be employed to create expression constructs for inducible coexpression in eukaryotic cells. For example, the 2-micron circle plasmid of Saccharomyces cerevisiae is compatible with plasmids from other yeast strains, such as pSR1 (ATCC Deposit Nos. 48233 and 66069; Araki et al., “Molecular and functional organization of yeast plasmid pSR1”, J Mol Biol 1985 Mar. 20; 182(2): 191-203) and pKD1 (ATCC Deposit No. 37519; Chen et al., “Sequence organization of the circular plasmid pKD1 from the yeast Kluyveromyces drosophilarum”, Nucleic Acids Res 1986 Jun. 11; 14(11): 4471-4481).

-   -   Selectable markers. Expression constructs usually comprise a         selection gene, also termed a selectable marker, which encodes a         protein necessary for the survival or growth of host cells in a         selective culture medium. Host cells not containing the         expression construct comprising the selection gene will not         survive in the culture medium. Typical selection genes encode         proteins that confer resistance to antibiotics or other toxins,         or that complement auxotrophic deficiencies of the host cell.         One example of a selection scheme utilizes a drug such as an         antibiotic to arrest growth of a host cell. Those cells that         contain an expression construct comprising the selectable marker         produce a protein conferring drug resistance and survive the         selection regimen. Some examples of antibiotics that are         commonly used for the selection of selectable markers (and         abbreviations indicating genes that provide antibiotic         resistance phenotypes) are: ampicillin (Amp^(R)),         chloramphenicol (Cml^(R) or Cm^(R)), kanamycin (Kan^(R)),         spectinomycin (Spc^(R)), streptomycin (Str^(R)), and         tetracycline (Tet^(R)). Many of the representative plasmids in         Table 2 comprise selectable markers, such as pBR322 (Amp^(R),         Tet^(R)); pMOB45 (Cm^(R), Tet^(R)); pACYC177 (Amp^(R), Kan^(R));         and pGBM1 (Spc^(R), Str^(R)). The native promoter region for a         selection gene is usually included, along with the coding         sequence for its gene product, as part of a selectable marker         portion of an expression construct. Alternatively, the coding         sequence for the selection gene can be expressed from a         constitutive promoter.     -   Inducible promoter. As described herein, there are several         different inducible promoters that can be included in expression         constructs as part of the inducible coexpression systems of the         invention. Preferred inducible promoters share at least 80%         polynucleotide sequence identity (more preferably, at least 90%         identity, and most preferably, at least 95% identity) to at         least 30 (more preferably, at least 40, and most preferably, at         least 50) contiguous bases of a promoter polynucleotide sequence         as defined in Table 1 by reference to the E. coli K-12 substrain         MG1655 genomic sequence, where percent polynucleotide sequence         identity is determined using the methods of Example 11. Under         ‘standard’ inducing conditions (see Example 5), preferred         inducible promoters have at least 75% (more preferably, at least         100%, and most preferably, at least 110%) of the strength of the         corresponding ‘wild-type’ inducible promoter of E. coli K-12         substrain MG1655, as determined using the quantitative PCR         method of De Mey et al. (Example 6). Within the expression         construct, an inducible promoter is placed 5′ to (or ‘upstream         of’) the coding sequence for the gene product that is to be         inducibly expressed, so that the presence of the inducible         promoter will direct transcription of the gene product coding         sequence in a 5′ to 3′ direction relative to the coding strand         of the polynucleotide encoding the gene product.     -   Ribosome binding site. For polypeptide gene products, the         nucleotide sequence of the region between the transcription         initiation site and the initiation codon of the coding sequence         of the gene product that is to be inducibly expressed         corresponds to the 5′ untranslated region (‘UTR’) of the mRNA         for the polypeptide gene product. Preferably, the region of the         expression construct that corresponds to the 5′ UTR comprises a         polynucleotide sequence similar to the consensus ribosome         binding site (RBS, also called the Shine-Dalgarno sequence) that         is found in the species of the host cell. In prokaryotes         (archaea and bacteria), the RBS consensus sequence is GGAGG or         GGAGGU, and in bacteria such as E. coli, the RBS consensus         sequence is AGGAGG or AGGAGGU. The RBS is typically separated         from the initiation codon by 5 to 10 intervening nucleotides. In         expression constructs, the RBS sequence is preferably at least         55% identical to the AGGAGGU consensus sequence, more preferably         at least 70% identical, and most preferably at least 85%         identical, and is separated from the initiation codon by 5 to 10         intervening nucleotides, more preferably by 6 to 9 intervening         nucleotides, and most preferably by 6 or 7 intervening         nucleotides. The ability of a given RBS to produce a desirable         translation initiation rate can be calculated at the website         salis.psu.edu/software/RBSLibraryCalculatorSearchMode, using the         RBS Calculator; the same tool can be used to optimize a         synthetic RBS for a translation rate across a 100,000+ fold         range (Salis, “The ribosome binding site calculator”, Methods         Enzymol 2011; 498: 19-42).     -   Multiple cloning site. A multiple cloning site (MCS), also         called a polylinker, is a polynucleotide that contains multiple         restriction sites in close proximity to or overlapping each         other. The restriction sites in the MCS typically occur once         within the MCS sequence, and preferably do not occur within the         rest of the plasmid or other polynucleotide construct, allowing         restriction enzymes to cut the plasmid or other polynucleotide         construct only within the MCS. Examples of MCS sequences are         those in the pBAD series of expression vectors, including         pBAD18, pBAD18-Cm, pBAD18-Kan, pBAD24, pBAD28, pBAD30, and         pBAD33 (Guzman et al., “Tight regulation, modulation, and         high-level expression by vectors containing the arabinose PBAD         promoter”, J Bacteriol 1995 Jul; 177(14): 4121-4130); or those         in the pPRO series of expression vectors derived from the pBAD         vectors, such as pPRO18, pPRO18-Cm, pPRO18-Kan, pPRO24, pPRO30,         and pPRO33 (U.S. Pat. No. 8178338 B2; May 15 2012; Keasling,         Jay). A multiple cloning site can be used in the creation of an         expression construct: by placing a multiple cloning site 3′ to         (or downstream of) a promoter sequence, the MCS can be used to         insert the coding sequence for a gene product to be coexpressed         into the construct, in the proper location relative to the         promoter so that transcription of the coding sequence will         occur. Depending on which restriction enzymes are used to cut         within the MCS, there may be some part of the MCS sequence         remaining within the expression construct after the coding         sequence or other polynucleotide sequence is inserted into the         expression construct. Any remaining MCS sequence can be upstream         or, or downstream of, or on both sides of the inserted sequence.         A ribosome binding site can be placed upstream of the MCS,         preferably immediately adjacent to or separated from the MCS by         only a few nucleotides, in which case the RBS would be upstream         of any coding sequence inserted into the MCS. Another         alternative is to include a ribosome binding site within the         MCS, in which case the choice of restriction enzymes used to cut         within the MCS will determine whether the RBS is retained, and         in what relation to, the inserted sequences. A further         alternative is to include a RBS within the polynucleotide         sequence that is to be inserted into the expression construct at         the MCS, preferably in the proper relation to any coding         sequences to stimulate initiation of translation from the         transcribed messenger RNA.     -   Expression from constitutive promoters. Expression constructs of         the invention can also comprise coding sequences that are         expressed from constitutive promoters. Unlike inducible         promoters, constitutive promoters initiate continual gene         product production under most growth conditions. One example of         a constitutive promoter is that of the Tn3 bla gene, which         encodes beta-lactamase and is responsible for the         ampicillin-resistance (AmpR) phenotype conferred on the host         cell by many plasmids, including pBR322 (ATCC 31344), pACYC177         (ATCC 37031), and pBAD24 (ATCC 87399). Another constitutive         promoter that can be used in expression constructs is the         promoter for the E. coli lipoprotein gene, Ipp, which is located         at positions 1755731-1755406 (plus strand) in E. coli K-12         substrain MG1655 (Inouye and Inouye, “Up-promoter mutations in         the Ipp gene of Escherichia coli”, Nucleic Acids Res 1985 May         10; 13(9): 3101-3110). A further example of a constitutive         promoter that has been used for heterologous gene expression         in E. coli is the trpLEDCBA promoter, located at positions         1321169-1321133 (minus strand) in E. coli K-12 substrain MG1655         (Windass et al., “The construction of a synthetic Escherichia         coli trp promoter and its use in the expression of a synthetic         interferon gene”, Nucleic Acids Res 1982 Nov. 11; 10(21):         6639-6657). Constitutive promoters can be used in expression         constructs for the expression of selectable markers, as         described herein, and also for the constitutive expression of         other gene products useful for the coexpression of the desired         product. For example, transcriptional regulators of the         inducible promoters, such as AraC, PrpR, RhaR, and XylR, if not         expressed from a bidirectional inducible promoter, can         alternatively be expressed from a constitutive promoter, on         either the same expression construct as the inducible promoter         they regulate, or a different expression construct. Similarly,         gene products useful for the production or transport of the         inducer, such as PrpEC, AraE, or Rha, or proteins that modify         the reduction-oxidation environment of the cell, as a few         examples, can be expressed from a constitutive promoter within         an expression construct. Gene products useful for the production         of coexpressed gene products, and the resulting desired product,         also include chaperone proteins, cofactor transporters, etc.     -   Signal Peptides. Polypeptide gene products coexpressed by the         methods of the invention can contain signal peptides or lack         them, depending on whether it is desirable for such gene         products to be exported from the host cell cytoplasm into the         periplasm, or to be retained in the cytoplasm, respectively.         Signal peptides (also termed signal sequences, leader sequences,         or leader peptides) are characterized structurally by a stretch         of hydrophobic amino acids, approximately five to twenty amino         acids long and often around ten to fifteen amino acids in         length, that has a tendency to form a single alpha-helix. This         hydrophobic stretch is often immediately preceded by a shorter         stretch enriched in positively charged amino acids (particularly         lysine). Signal peptides that are to be cleaved from the mature         polypeptide typically end in a stretch of amino acids that is         recognized and cleaved by signal peptidase. Signal peptides can         be characterized functionally by the ability to direct transport         of a polypeptide, either co-translationally or         post-translationally, through the plasma membrane of prokaryotes         (or the inner membrane of gram negative bacteria like E. coli),         or into the endoplasmic reticulum of eukaryotic cells. The         degree to which a signal peptide enables a polypeptide to be         transported into the periplasmic space of a host cell like E.         coli, for example, can be determined by separating periplasmic         proteins from proteins retained in the cytoplasm, using a method         such as that provided in Example 12.

Host Cells. The inducible coexpression systems of the invention are designed to express multiple gene products; in certain embodiments of the invention, the gene products are coexpressed in a host cell. Examples of host cells are provided that allow for the efficient and cost-effective inducible coexpression of components of multimeric products. Host cells can include, in addition to isolated cells in culture, cells that are part of a multicellular organism, or cells grown within a different organism or system of organisms. In addition, the expression constructs of the inducible coexpression systems of the invention can be used in cell-free systems, such as those based on wheat germ extracts or on bacterial cell extracts, such as a continuous-exchange cell-free (CECF) protein synthesis system using E. coli extracts and an incubation apparatus such as the RTS ProteoMaster (Roche Diagnostics GmbH; Mannheim, Germany) (Jun et al., “Continuous-exchange cell-free protein synthesis using PCR-generated DNA and an RNase E-deficient extract”, Biotechniques 2008 Mar; 44(3): 387-391).

-   -   Prokaryotic host cells. In some embodiments of the invention,         expression constructs designed for coexpression of gene products         are provided in host cells, preferably prokaryotic host cells.         Prokaryotic host cells can include archaea (such as Haloferax         volcanii, Sulfolobus solfataricus), Gram-positive bacteria (such         as Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus licheniformis, Brevibacillus         choshinensis, Lactobacillus brevis, Lactobacillus buchneri,         Lactococcus lactis, and Streptomyces lividans), or Gram-negative         bacteria, including Alphaproteobacteria (Agrobacterium         turnefaciens, Caulobacter crescentus, Rhodobacter sphaeroides,         and Sinorhizobium meliloti), Betaproteobacteria (Alcaligenes         eutrophus), and Gammaproteobacteria (Acinetobacter         calcoaceticus, Azotobacter vinelandii, Escherichia coli,         Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Pseudomonas putida). Preferred host         cells include Gammaproteobacteria of the family         Enterobacteriaceae, such as Enterobacter, Erwinia, Escherichia         (including E. coli), Klebsiella, Proteus, Salmonella (including         Salmonella typhimurium), Serratia (including Serratia         marcescans), and Shigella.     -   Eukaryotic host cells. Many additional types of host cells can         be used for the inducible coexpression systems of the invention,         including eukaryotic cells such as yeast (Candida shehatae,         Kluyveromyces lactis, Kluyveromyces fragilis, other         Kluyveromyces species, Pichia pastoris, Saccharomyces         cerevisiae, Saccharomyces pastorianus also known as         Saccharomyces carlsbergensis, Schizosaccharomyces pombe,         Dekkera/Brettanomyces species, and Yarrowia lipolytica); other         fungi (Aspergillus nidulans, Aspergillus niger, Neurospora         crassa, Penicillium, Tolypocladium, Trichoderma reesia); insect         cell lines (Drosophila melanogaster Schneider 2 cells and         Spodoptera frugiperda Sf9 cells); and mammalian cell lines         including immortalized cell lines (Chinese hamster ovary (CHO)         cells, HeLa cells, baby hamster kidney (BHK) cells, monkey         kidney cells (COS), human embryonic kidney (HEK, 293, or         HEK-293) cells, and human hepatocellular carcinoma cells (Hep         G2)). The above host cells are available from the American Type         Culture Collection.

Alterations to host cell gene functions. Certain alterations can be made to the gene functions of host cells comprising inducible expression constructs, to promote efficient and homogeneous induction of the host cell population by an inducer. Preferably, the combination of expression constructs, host cell genotype, and induction conditions results in at least 75% (more preferably at least 85%, and most preferably, at least 95%) of the cells in the culture expressing gene product from each induced promoter, as measured by the method of Khlebnikov et aL described in Example 6. For host cells other than E. coli, these alterations can involve the function of genes that are structurally similar to an E. coli gene, or genes that carry out a function within the host cell similar to that of the E. coli gene. Alterations to host cell gene functions include eliminating or reducing gene function by deleting the gene protein-coding sequence in its entirety, or deleting a large enough portion of the gene, inserting sequence into the gene, or otherwise altering the gene sequence so that a reduced level of functional gene product is made from that gene. Alterations to host cell gene functions also include increasing gene function by, for example, altering the native promoter to create a stronger promoter that directs a higher level of transcription of the gene, or introducing a missense mutation into the protein-coding sequence that results in a more highly active gene product. Alterations to host cell gene functions include altering gene function in any way, including for example, altering a native inducible promoter to create a promoter that is constitutively activated. In addition to alterations in gene functions for the transport and metabolism of inducers, as described herein with relation to inducible promoters, and an altered expression of chaperone proteins, it is also possible to alter the carbon catabolite repression (CCR) regulatory system and/or the reduction-oxidation environment of the host cell.

-   -   Carbon catabolite repression (CCR). The presence of an active         CCR regulatory system within a host can affect the ability of an         inducer to activate transcription from an inducible promoter.         For example, when a host cell such as E. coli is grown in a         medium containing glucose, genes needed for the utilization of         other carbon sources, such as the araBAD and prpBCDE operons,         are expressed at a low level if at all, even if the arabinose or         propionate inducer is also present in the growth medium. There         is also a hierarchy of utilization of carbon sources other than         glucose: as in the case of the ara and prp inducible promoter         systems, where the presence of arabinose reduces the ability of         propionate to induce expression from the prpBCDE promoter (Park         et al., “The mechanism of sugar-mediated catabolite repression         of the propionate catabolic genes in Escherichia coli”, Gene         2012 Aug. 1; 504(1): 116-121; Epub 2012 May 3). The CCR         mechanism of the cell therefore makes it more difficult to use         two or more carbon-source inducers in an inducible coexpression         system, as the presence of the inducer that is the preferred         carbon source will inhibit induction by less-preferred carbon         sources. The Park et aL authors attempted to relieve the         repression of the prp promoter by arabinose, by using either a         mutant crp gene that produces an altered cAMP receptor protein         that can function independently of cAMP, or a deletion of PTS         (phosphotransferase system) genes involved in the regulation of         CCR; both approaches were largely unsuccessful. However, the         PTS-knockout strain used by the Park et al. authors is based on         strain TP2811, which is a deletion of the E. coli ptsHl-crr         operon (Hernández-Mantalvo et al., “Characterization of sugar         mixtures utilization by an Escherichia coli mutant devoid of the         phosphotransferase system”, Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2001 Oct;         57(1-2): 186-191). Deletion of the entire ptsHl-crr operon has         been found to affect total cAMP synthesis more significantly         than a deletion of just the crr gene (Lévy et al., “Cyclic AMP         synthesis in Escherichia coli strains bearing known deletions in         the pts phosphotransferase operon”, Gene 1990 Jan. 31; 86(1):         27-33). A different approach is to eliminate or reduce the         function of ptsG gene in the host cell, which encodes         glucose-specific ElI A (Ell A^(glc)), a key element for CCR         in E. coli (Kim et al., “Simultaneous consumption of pentose and         hexose sugars: an optimal microbial phenotype for efficient         fermentation of lignocellulosic biomass”, Appl Microbiol         Biotechnol 2010 Nov; 88(5): 1077-1085, Epub 2010 Sep. 14).         Another alteration in the genome of a host cell such as E. coli,         which leads to increased transcription of the prp promoter, is         to eliminate or reduce the gene function of the ascG gene, which         encodes AscG. AscG is the repressor of the         beta-D-glucoside-utilization operon ascFB under normal growth         conditions, and also represses transcription of the prp         promoter; disruption of the AscG coding sequence has been shown         to increase transcription from the prp promoter (Ishida et al.,         “Participation of regulator AscG of the beta-glucoside         utilization operon in regulation of the propionate catabolism         operon”, J Bacteriol 2009 Oct; 191(19): 6136-6144; Epub 2009         Jul. 24). A further alternative is to increase expression of the         transcriptional regulator of promoters inducible by the         less-preferred carbon-source inducer, by placing it either under         the control of a strong constitutive promoter, or under the         control of the more-preferred carbon-source inducer. For         example, to increase the induction of genes needed for the         utilization of the less-preferred carbon source xylose in the         presence of the more-preferred arabinose, the coding sequence         for XylR is placed into the E. coli araBAD operon (Groff et al.,         “Supplementation of intracellular XylR leads to coutilization of         hemicellulose sugars”, Appl Environ Microbiol 2012 Apr; 78(7):         2221-2229, Epub 2012 Jan. 27). Host cells comprising inducible         coexpression constructs therefore preferably include an         increased level of gene function for transcriptional regulators         of promoters inducible by the less-preferred carbon-source         inducer(s), and an eliminated or reduced gene function for genes         involved in the CCR system, such as crr and/or ptsG and/or ascG.     -   Cellular transport of cofactors. When using the inducible         coexpression systems of the invention to produce enzymes that         require cofactors for function, it is helpful to use a host cell         capable of synthesizing the cofactor from available precursors,         or taking it up from the environment. Common cofactors include         ATP, coenzyme A, flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD), NAD+/NADH,         and heme.     -   Host cell reduction-oxidation environment. Many multimeric gene         products, such as antibodies, contain disulfide bonds. The         cytoplasm of E. coli and many other cells is normally maintained         in a reduced state by the thioredoxin and the         glutaredoxin/glutathione enzyme systems. This precludes the         formation of disulfide bonds in the cytoplasm, and proteins that         need disulfide bonds are exported into the periplasm where         disulfide bond formation and isomerization is catalyzed by the         Dsb system, comprising DsbABCD and DsbG. Increased expression of         the cysteine oxidase DsbA, the disulfide isomerase DsbC, or         combinations of the Dsb proteins, which are all normally         transported into the periplasm, has been utilized in the         expression of heterologous proteins that require disulfide bonds         (Makino et al., “Strain engineering for improved expression of         recombinant proteins in bacteria”, Microb Cell Fact 2011 May 14;         10: 32). It is also possible to express cytoplasmic forms of         these Dsb proteins, such as a cytoplasmic version of DsbC         (‘cDsbC’), that lacks a signal peptide and therefore is not         transported into the periplasm. Cytoplasmic Dsb proteins such as         cDsbC are useful for making the cytoplasm of the host cell more         oxidizing and thus more conducive to the formation of disulfide         bonds in heterologous proteins produced in the cytoplasm. The         host cell cytoplasm can also be made more oxidizing by altering         the thioredoxin and the glutaredoxin/glutathione enzyme systems         directly: mutant strains defective in glutathione reductase         (gor) or glutathione synthetase (gshB), together with         thioredoxin reductase (trxB), render the cytoplasm oxidizing.         These strains are unable to reduce ribonucleotides and therefore         cannot grow in the absence of exogenous reductant, such as         dithiothreitol (DTT). Suppressor mutations (ahpC*) in the gene         ahpC, which encodes the peroxiredoxin AhpC, convert it to a         disulfide reductase that generates reduced glutathione, allowing         the channeling of electrons onto the enzyme ribonucleotide         reductase and enabling the cells defective in gor and trxB, or         defective in gshB and trxB, to grow in the absence of DTT. A         different class of mutated forms of AhpC can allow strains,         defective in the activity of gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase         (gshA) and defective in trxB, to grow in the absence of DTT;         these include AhpC V164G, AhpC S71F, AhpC E173/S71F, AhpC         E171Ter, and AhpC dup162-169 (Faulkner et al., “Functional         plasticity of a peroxidase allows evolution of diverse         disulfide-reducing pathways”, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2008 May         6; 105(18): 6735-6740, Epub 2008 May 2). In such strains with         oxidizing cytoplasm, exposed protein cysteines become readily         oxidized in a process that is catalyzed by thioredoxins, in a         reversal of their physiological function, resulting in the         formation of disulfide bonds.

Another alteration that can be made to host cells is to express the sulfhydryl oxidase Erv1p from the inner membrane space of yeast mitochondria in the host cell cytoplasm, which has been shown to increase the production of a variety of complex, disulfide-bonded proteins of eukaryotic origin in the cytoplasm of E. coli, even in the absence of mutations in gor or trxB (Nguyen et al., “Pre-expression of a sulfhydryl oxidase significantly increases the yields of eukaryotic disulfide bond containing proteins expressed in the cytoplasm of E. coli” Microb Cell Fact 2011 Jan. 7; 10: 1). Host cells comprising inducible coexpression constructs preferably also express cDsbC and/or Erv1p, are deficient in trxB gene function, are also deficient in the gene function of either gor, gshB, or gshA, and express an appropriate mutant form of AhpC so that the host cells can be grown in the absence of DTT.

-   -   Glycosylation of polypeptide gene products. Host cells can have         alterations in their ability to glycosylate polypeptides. For         example, eukaryotic host cells can have eliminated or reduced         gene function in glycosyltransferase and/or         oligosaccharyltransferase genes, impairing the normal eukaryotic         glycosylation of polypeptides to form glycoproteins. Prokaryotic         host cells such as E. coli, which do not normally glycosylate         polypeptides, can be altered to express a set of eukaryotic and         prokaryotic genes that provide a glycosylation function (DeLisa         et al., “Glycosylated protein expression in prokaryotes”,         WO2009089154A2, 2009 Jul. 16).     -   Available host cell strains with altered gene functions. To         create preferred strains of host cells to be used in the         inducible coexpression systems and methods of the invention, it         is useful to start with a strain that already comprises desired         genetic alterations (Table 3).

TABLE 3 Host Cell Strains Strain: Genotype: Source: E. coli F- mcrA Δ(mrr-hsdRMS-mcrBC) Invitrogen Life TOP10 φ80lacZΔM15 ΔlacX74 Technologies recA1 araD139 Δ(ara-leu)7697 galU Catalog nos. galK rpsL (Str^(R)) endA1 nupG λ- C4040-10, C4040-03, C4040-06, C4040-50, and C4040-52 E. coli Δ(ara-leu)7697 ΔlacX74 ΔphoA Merck (EMD Origa- PvuII phoR araD139 ahpC galE Millipore mi ™ 2 galK rpsL F′[lac⁺ lacI^(q) pro] Chemicals) gor522::Tn10 trxB (Str^(R), Tet^(R)) Catalog No. 71344 E. coli fhuA2 [lon] ompT ahpC gal New England SHuffle ® λatt::pNEB3-r1-cDsbC (Spec, lacI) Biolabs Catalog Express ΔtrxB sulA11 R(mcr-73::miniTn10-- No. C3028H Tet^(S))2 [dcm] R(zgb-210::Tn10 -- Tet^(S)) endA1 Δgor Δ(mcrC- mrr)114::IS10

-   -   Methods of altering host cell gene functions. There are many         methods known in the art for making alterations to host cell         genes in order to eliminate, reduce, or change gene function.         Methods of making targeted disruptions of genes in host cells         such as E. coli and other prokaryotes have been described         (Muyrers et al., “Rapid modification of bacterial artificial         chromosomes by ET-recombination”, Nucleic Acids Res 1999 Mar.         15; 27(6): 1555-1557; Datsenko and Wanner, “One-step         inactivation of chromosomal genes in Escherichia coli K-12 using         PCR products”, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000 Jun. 6; 97(12):         6640-6645), and kits for using similar Red/ET recombination         methods are commercially available (for example, the Quick &         Easy E. coli Gene Deletion Kit from Gene Bridges GmbH,         Heidelberg, Germany). In one embodiment of the invention, the         function of one or more genes of host cells is eliminated or         reduced by identifying a nucleotide sequence within the coding         sequence of the gene to be disrupted, such as one of the E. coli         K-12 substrain MG1655 coding sequences incorporated herein by         reference to the genomic location of the sequence, and more         specifically by selecting two adjacent stretches of 50         nucleotides each within that coding sequence. The Quick &         Easy E. coli Gene Deletion Kit is then used according to the         manufacturer's instructions to insert a polynucleotide construct         containing a selectable marker between the selected adjacent         stretches of coding sequence, eliminating or reducing the normal         function of the gene. Red/ET recombination methods can also be         used to replace a promoter sequence with that of a different         promoter, such as a constitutive promoter, or an artificial         promoter that is predicted to promote a certain level of         transcription (De Mey et al., “Promoter knock-in: a novel         rational method for the fine tuning of genes”, BMC Biotechnol         2010 Mar. 24; 10: 26). The function of host cell genes can also         be eliminated or reduced by RNA silencing methods (Man et aL,         “Artificial trans-encoded small non-coding RNAs specifically         silence the selected gene expression in bacteria”, Nucleic Acids         Res 2011 Apr; 39(8): e50, Epub 2011 Feb. 3). Further, known         mutations that alter host cell gene function can be introduced         into host cells through traditional genetic methods.

Inducible Coexpression Systems of the Invention

Inducible coexpression systems of the invention involve host cells comprising two or more expression constructs, where the expression constructs comprise inducible promoters directing the expression of gene products, and the host cells have altered gene functions that allow for homogeneous inducible expression of the gene products. FIG. 1 shows a schematic representation of an inducible coexpression system of the invention, with the following components: (1) host cell, (2) host genome (including genetic alterations), (3) an expression vector ‘X’ comprising an inducible promoter directing expression of a gene product, (4) a different expression vector ‘Y’ comprising an inducible promoter directing expression of another gene product, (5) chemical inducers of expression, and (6) the multimeric coexpression product. FIG. 3 shows a schematic representation similar to that shown in FIG. 1, with inducible promoters ((3) and (4)) and the coding sequences for the products expressed by the inducible promoters present on the same expression vector.

FIG. 2 shows a schematic representation of a particular example of an inducible coexpression system of the invention, utilizing the araBAD promoter on a pBAD24 (or pBAD240) expression vector in combination with a propionate-inducible promoter (prpBCDE promoter) on a pPRO33 (U.S. Pat. No. 8178338 B2; May 15 2012; Keasling, Jay) (or pPRO43, pPRO430, pPRO430(CloDF13), pPRO44, or pPRO45) expression vector in an E. coli host cell housing the appropriate genomic alterations which allow for homogenously inducible expression. In this manner, tight control and optimization of expression of each component of a multimeric product can be achieved for use in a number of coexpression applications. In this embodiment, the host cell (1) is the Gram-negative bacterium Escherichia coli, commonly used in the art for protein expression. The host genome (2) is the genome of the host cell organism with mutations or other alterations that facilitate homogenously inducible protein coexpression, including expression of a cytoplasmic form of the disulfide isomerase DsbC which lacks a signal peptide. In one embodiment, the genomic alterations include both an araBAD operon knockout mutation, and either expression of araE and araFGH from constitutive promoters, or a point mutation in the lacY gene (A117C) in an araEFGH-deficient background, to facilitate homogenous induction of plasmid-based ara promoters with exogenously applied L-arabinose, and also an inactivated proprionate metabolism gene, prpD, to facilitate homogenous induction of plasmid-based propionate promoters with exogenously applied propionate, which is converted to 2-methylcitrate in vivo. Other genomic alterations that are useful for the inducible coexpression system, and may be introduced into the host cell, include without limitation: targeted inactivation of the scpA-argK-scpBC operon, to reduce background expression from the prpBCDE promoter; expression of the transcriptional regulator (prpR) for the less-preferred carbon-source (propionate) from an L-arabinose-inducible promoter such as the araBAD promoter, and/or an eliminated or reduced gene function for genes involved in the CCR system, such as crr and/or ptsG, to avoid suppression by the CCR system of induction by propionate in the presence of L-arabinose; reductions in the level of gene function for glutathione reductase (gor) or glutathione synthetase (gshB), together with thioredoxin reductase (trxB), and/or expression of yeast mitochondrial sulfhydryl oxidase Erv1p in the host cell cytoplasm, to provide a less strongly reducing environment in the host cell cytoplasm and promote disulfide bond formation; increased levels of expression, such as from a strong constitutive promoter, of chaperone proteins such as DnaK/DnaJ/GrpE, DsbC/DsbG, GroEL/GroES, IbpA/IbpB, Skp, Tig (trigger factor), and/or FkpA; and other mutations to reduce endogenous protease activity (such as that of the Lon and OmpT proteases) and recombinase activities.

As shown in FIG. 2, two compatible expression vectors (3, 4) are maintained in the host cell to allow for simultaneous expression (coexpression) of two different gene products. In this embodiment, one expression vector (‘L-arabinose-induced expression vector’) contains an L-arabinose-induced promoter, and is similar or identical to pBAD or related plasmids in which an araBAD promoter drives expression of an inserted expression sequence cloned into the multiple cloning site (MCS). The L-arabinose-induced expression vector also contains a coding sequence for an antibiotic-resistance gene (such as the Tn3 bla gene, which encodes beta-lactamase and confers resistance to ampicillin, or a gene encoding aminoglycoside 3′-phosphotransferase and conferring resistance to kanamycin) to facilitate selection of host cells (bacterial colonies) which contain an intact expression vector. An origin of replication (ORI) is required for propagation of the plasmid within bacterial host cells. The L-arabinose induced expression plasmid also contains a polynucleotide sequence encoding araC, a transcriptional regulator that allows for L-arabinose induction of the araBAD promotor and through transcriptional repression reduces ‘leaky’ background expression in the non-induced state. The other expression vector (‘propionate-induced expression vector’) is similar or identical to pPRO or related plasmids, in which a propionate-induced promoter drives expression of an inserted expression sequence cloned into the multiple cloning site (MCS). The plasmid also contains a coding sequence for an antibiotic-resistance gene (such as the cat gene, encoding chloramphenicol acetyltransferase, which confers resistance to chloramphenicol) to facilitate selection of host cells which contain an intact expression vector. An origin of replication (ORI) is required for propagation of the plasmid within bacterial host cells. In addition, the propionate-induced expression vector contains a polynucleotide sequence encoding prpR, a transcriptional regulator that allows for propionate (2-methylcitrate) induction of the prpBCDE promotor and reduces ‘leaky’ background expression in the non-induced state. To facilitate separate titratation of induction, plasmid compatibility, and copropagation of the expression vectors, it is useful for the expression vectors to contain promoters responsive to different inducers, compatible origins of replication, and different antibiotic-resistance markers. In one embodiment of the invention, pBAD24 (pMB1 or ‘pBR322’ ORI, Amp^(R)) or a related expression vector such as pBAD240 (pMB1 ORI, Kan^(R)) containing an L-arabinose-inducible araBAD promoter is combined in a host cell with a pPRO33, pPRO43, pPRO430, or related expression vector (p15A ORI, Cm^(R)) containing a propionate-inducible prpBCDE promoter.

Compatible expression vectors containing a propionate-inducible prpBCDE promoter such as pPRO430(CloDF13), pPRO44 (RSF1030 ORI), or pPRO45 (CloDF13) can also be used in combination with the araBAD-promoter-containing expression vectors (pMB1 ORI). The expression vectors are co-propagated and maintained using growth medium supplemented with the appropriate antibiotics: ampicillin, chloramphenicol, and/or kanamycin. In one embodiment, one expression vector comprises a polynucleotide sequence encoding the heavy chain of a full-length antibody, and the other expression vector comprises a polynucleotide sequence encoding the light chain of a full-length antibody, each coding sequence cloned in-frame into the MCS of the respective expression vector. For production of certain gene products such as antibodies, coding sequence optimization for the host organism (including adjustment for codon bias and GC-content, among other considerations) will determine the coding sequences to be inserted into the expression constructs of the coexpression system.

Referring again to FIG. 2, coexpression of gene products is induced by inexpensive exogenously applied chemical metabolites, L-arabinose and propionate (5). The level of induction of expression of each gene product is independently titrated with its own chemical inducer, thereby facilitating optimization of protein coexpression. This is useful for expression of protein complexes and proteins that require a binding partner for stabilization, and may facilitate expression of otherwise difficult to express proteins, such as those with poor solubility or cellular toxicity. In this example, upon induction, antibody heavy and short chains are each separately expressed, then the proteins join and form interchain disulfide bridges (within the cytoplasm of the bacterial host) which allows the formation and stabilization of full-length antibody comprised of the heavy and light chains. Proteins can be directed to various compartments of the host organism. For example, in E. coli the protein can be expressed in the cytoplasm, cell membrane, periplasm, or secreted into the medium. After an appropriate incubation time, cells and media are collected, and the total protein extracted, which includes the coexpressed gene products (6). After extraction, the desired product can be purified using a number of methods well known in the art depending on the nature of the gene products produced in the coexpression system (for example liquid chromatography). In the example shown in FIG. 2, the multimeric product (full-length antibody) is extracted and purified using chromatographic methods. Purified intact antibody is visualized on a non-denaturing gel using standard techniques, including protein-binding dyes or immunohistochemistry. The full-length antibody product can then be used for a number of research, diagnostic, or other applications.

FIG. 4 shows a schematic representation similar to that shown in FIG. 2, with an arabinose-inducible promoter (3), a propionate-inducible promoter (4), and coding sequences for antibody heavy and light chains present on the same expression vector. It is also possible to express the antibody heavy chain from the propionate-inducible promoter and the antibody light chain from the arabinose-inducible promoter.

Products Made by the Methods of the Invention

There is broad versatility in utilizing the inducible coexpression systems of the present invention in numerous coexpression applications, and in the properties of the products.

-   -   Glycosylation. Gene products coexpressed by the methods of the         invention may be glycosylated or unglycosylated. In one         embodiment of the invention, the coexpressed gene products are         polypeptides. Glycosylated polypeptides are polypeptides that         comprise a covalently attached glycosyl group, and include         polypeptides comprising all the glycosyl groups normally         attached to particular residues of that polypeptide (fully         glycosylated polypeptides), partially glycosylated polypeptides,         polypeptides with glycosylation at one or more residues where         glycosylation does not normally occur (altered glycosylation),         and polypeptides glycosylated with at least one glycosyl group         that differs in structure from the glycosyl group normally         attached to one or more specified residues (modified         glycosylation). An example of modified glycosylation is the         production of “defucosylated” or “fucose-deficient”         polypeptides, polypeptides lacking fucosyl moieties in the         glycosyl groups attached to them, by expression of polypeptides         in host cells lacking the ability to fucosylate polypeptides.         Unglycosylated polypeptides are polypeptides that do not         comprise a covalently bound glycosyl group. An unglycosylated         polypeptide can be the result of deglycosylation of a         polypeptide, or of production of an aglycosylated polypeptide.         Deglycosylated polypeptides can be obtained by enzymatically         deglycosylating glycosylated polypeptides, whereas aglycosylated         polypeptides can be produced by expressing polypeptides in host         cells that do not have the capability to glycosylate         polypeptides, such as prokaryotic cells or cells in which the         function of at least one glycosylation enzyme has been         eliminated or reduced. In a particular embodiment, the         coexpressed polypeptides are aglycosylated, and in a more         specific embodiment, the aglycosylated polypeptides are         coexpressed in prokaryotic cells such as E. coli.     -   Other modifications of gene products. Gene products coexpressed         by the methods of the invention may be covalently linked to         other types of molecules. Examples of molecules that may be         covalently linked to coexpressed gene products, without limiting         the scope of the invention, include polypeptides (such as         receptors, ligands, cytokines, growth factors, polypeptide         hormones, DNA-binding domains, protein interaction domains such         as PDZ domains, kinase domains, antibodies, and fragments of any         such polypeptides); water-soluble polymers (such as polyethylene         glycol (PEG), carboxymethylcellulose, dextran, polyvinyl         alcohol, polyoxyethylated polyols (such as glycerol),         polyethylene glycol propionaldehyde, and similar compounds,         derivatives, or mixtures thereof); and cytotoxic agents (such as         chemotherapeutic agents, growth-inhibitory agents, toxins (such         as enzymatically active toxins of bacterial, fungal, plant, or         animal origin, or fragments thereof), and radioactive isotopes).

In addition, gene products to be coexpressed by the methods of the invention can be designed to include molecular moieties that aid in the purification and/or detection of the gene products. Many such moieties are known in the art; as one example, a polypeptide gene product can be designed to include a polyhistidine ‘tag’ sequence—a run of six or more histidines, preferably six to ten histidine residues, and most preferably six histidines—at its N- or C-terminus. The presence of a polyhistidine sequence on the end of a polypeptide allows it to be bound by cobalt- or nickel-based affinity media, and separated from other polypeptides. The polyhistidine tag sequence can be removed by exopeptidases. As another example, fluorescent protein sequences can be expressed as part of a polypeptide gene product, with the amino acid sequence for the fluorescent protein preferably added at the N- or C-terminal end of the amino acid sequence of the polypeptide gene product. The resulting fusion protein fluoresces when exposed to light of certain wavelengths, allowing the presence of the fusion protein to be detected visually. A well-known fluorescent protein is the green fluorescent protein of Aequorea victoria, and many other fluorescent proteins are commercially available, along with nucleotide sequences encoding them.

-   -   Antibodies. In one embodiment of the invention, the coexpressed         gene products are antibodies. The term ‘antibody’ is used in the         broadest sense and specifically includes ‘native’ antibodies,         fully-human antibodies, humanized antibodies, chimeric         antibodies, multispecific antibodies (such as bispecific         antibodies), monoclonal antibodies, polyclonal antibodies,         antibody fragments, and other polypeptides derived from         antibodies that are capable of binding antigen. Unless indicated         otherwise herein, the numbering of the residues in an         immunoglobulin heavy chain (‘EU numbering’) is that of the EU         index (the residue numbering of the human IgG1 EU antibody) as         in Kabat et al., Sequences of Proteins of Immunological         Interest, Fifth Edition, 1991, National Institute of Health,         Bethesda, Md.

‘Native’ antibodies are usually heterotetrameric glycoproteins of about 150,000 daltons, composed of two identical light (L) chains and two identical heavy (H) chains. Each light chain is linked to a heavy chain by one covalent disulfide bond, while the number of inter-chain disulfide linkages varies among the heavy chains of different immunoglobulin isotypes. Each heavy and light chain also has regularly spaced intrachain disulfide bridges. Each heavy chain has at its N-terminal end a variable domain (V_(H)) followed by a number of constant domains. Each light chain has a variable domain at it N-terminal end (V_(L)) and a constant domain at its C-terminal end; the constant domain of the light chain is aligned with the first constant domain of the heavy chain, and the light-chain variable domain is aligned with the variable domain of the heavy chain. The term ‘variable’ refers to the fact that certain portions of the variable domains differ extensively in sequence among antibodies and are used in the binding and specificity of each particular antibody for an antigen. However, the variability is not evenly distributed throughout the variable domains of antibodies. It is concentrated in three segments called hypervariable regions (HVRs) both in the light-chain and the heavy-chain variable domains. The more highly conserved portions of variable domains are called the framework regions (FR). The variable domains of native heavy and light chains each comprise four FR regions, connected by three HVRs, and with the HVRs from the other chain, contribute to the formation of the antigen-binding site of antibodies.

The term ‘Fc region’ refers to a C-terminal region of an immunoglobulin heavy chain, and includes native Fc regions and variant Fc regions. Although the boundaries of the Fc region of an immunoglobulin heavy chain might vary, the human IgG heavy-chain Fc region can be defined to stretch from an amino acid residue at position Cys226, or from Pro230, to the carboxyl-terminus thereof. Alternatively, the Fc region can be defined to extend from the N-terminal residue (Ala231) of the conserved C_(H)2 immunoglobulin domain to the C-terminus, and may include multiple conserved domains such as C_(H)2, C_(H)3, and C_(H)4. The C-terminal lysine (residue 447 according to the EU numbering system) of the native Fc region may be removed, for example, during production or purification of the antibody, or by recombinantly engineering the nucleic acid encoding a heavy chain of the antibody. Accordingly, a composition of intact antibodies may comprise antibody populations with all K447 residues removed, antibody populations with no K447 residues removed, and antibody populations having a mixture of antibodies with and without the K447 residue. The Fc region of an antibody is crucial for recruitment of immunological cells and antibody dependent cytotoxicity (ADCC). In particular, the nature of the ADCC response elicited by antibodies depends on the interaction of the Fc region with receptors (FcRs) located on the surface of many cell types. Humans contain at least five different classes of Fc receptors. The binding of an antibody to FcRs determines its ability to recruit other immunological cells and the type of cell recruited. Hence, the ability to engineer antibodies with altered Fc regions that can recruit only certain kinds of cells can be critically important for therapy (US Patent Application 20090136936 A1, May 28, 2009, Georgiou, George). Native antibodies produced by mammalian cells typically comprise a branched, biantennary oligosaccharide that is generally attached by an N-linkage to Asn297 of the CH2 domain of the Fc region. In certain embodiments, antibodies produced by the methods of the invention are not glycosylated or are aglycosylated, for example, due to a substitution at residue 297 of the Fc region, or to expression in a host cell that does not have the capability to glycosylate polypeptides. Due to altered ADCC responses, unglycosylated antibodies may stimulate a lower level of inflammatory responses such as neuroinflammation. Also, since an antibody having an aglycosylated Fc region has very low binding affinity for Fc receptors, such antibodies would not bind to the large number of immune cells that bear these receptors. This is a significant advantage since it reduces non-specific binding, and also increases the half-life of the antibody in vivo, making this attribute very beneficial in therapeutics.

The terms ‘full-length antibody’, ‘intact antibody’, and ‘whole antibody’ are used interchangeably to refer to an antibody in its substantially intact ‘native’ form, not antibody fragments as defined below. The terms particularly refer to an antibody with heavy chains that each comprise a variable domain and an Fc region. ‘Antibody fragments’ comprise a portion of an intact antibody, preferably comprising the antigen-binding region thereof. Examples of antibody fragments include Fab, Fab′, F(ab′)₂, Fc, Fd, and Fv fragments; diabodies; linear antibodies; single-chain antibody molecules such as scFv; and multispecific antibodies formed from antibody fragments.

A ‘human antibody’ is one that possesses an amino-acid sequence corresponding to that of an antibody produced by a human. A ‘chimeric’ antibody is one in which a portion of the heavy and/or light chain is identical to, or shares a certain degree of amino acid sequence identity with, corresponding sequences in antibodies derived from a particular species or belonging to a particular antibody class or subclass, while the remainder of the chain(s) is identical to, or shares a certain degree of amino acid sequence identity with, corresponding sequences in antibodies derived from another species or belonging to another antibody class or subclass, as well as fragments of such antibodies. A ‘humanized’ antibody is a chimeric antibody that contains minimal amino acid residues derived from non-human immunoglobulin molecules. In one embodiment, a humanized antibody is a human immunoglobulin (recipient antibody) in which HVR residues of the recipient antibody are replaced by residues from an immunoglobulin HVR of a non-human species (donor antibody) such as mouse, rat, rabbit, or nonhuman primate. In some instances, FR residues of the human recipient antibody are replaced by corresponding non-human residues. Furthermore, humanized antibodies may comprise residues that are not found in the recipient antibody or in the donor antibody. The term ‘monoclonal antibody’ refers to an antibody obtained from a population of substantially homogeneous antibodies, in that the individual antibodies comprising the population are identical except for possible mutations, such as naturally occurring mutations, that may be present in minor amounts. Thus, the modifier ‘monoclonal’ indicates the character of the antibody as not being a mixture of discrete antibodies. In contrast to polyclonal antibody preparations, which typically include different antibodies directed against different determinants (epitopes), each monoclonal antibody of a monoclonal antibody preparation is directed against the same single determinant on an antigen. In addition to their specificity, monoclonal antibody preparations are advantageous in that they are typically uncontaminated by other immunoglobulins.

The ‘binding affinity’ of a molecule such as an antibody generally refers to the strength of the sum total of non-covalent interactions between a single binding site of a molecule and its binding partner (such as an antibody and the antigen it binds). Unless indicated otherwise, ‘binding affinity’ refers to intrinsic binding affinity that reflects a 1:1 interaction between members of a binding pair (such as antibody and antigen). The affinity of a molecule X for its partner Y can generally be represented by the dissociation constant (Kd). Low-affinity antibodies (higher Kd) generally bind antigen slowly and tend to dissociate readily, whereas high-affinity antibodies (lower Kd) generally bind antigen faster and tend to remain bound longer. A variety of ways to measure binding affinity are known in the art, any of which can be used for purposes of the present invention. Specific illustrative methods for measuring binding affinity are described in Example 8. Antibodies and antibody fragments produced by and/or used in methods of the invention preferably have binding affinities of less than 100 nM, more preferably have binding affinities of less than 10 nM, and most preferably have binding affinities of less than 2 nM, as measured by a surface-plasmon resonance assay as described in Example 8.

Antibodies (secondary) that recognize aglycosylated antibodies. Production of antibodies in E. coli-based or other prokaryotic expression systems without glycosylation enzymes will generally yield aglycosylated antibodies, which can be used as primary antibodies. In addition to using the inducible coexpression systems of the invention to produce aglycosylated primary antibodies, the inducible coexpression systems of the invention can also be used to efficiently produce secondary antibodies that specifically recognize aglycosylated primary antibodies. One aspect of the present invention is a secondary antibody system capable of detecting an unglycosylated or aglycosylated primary antibody for research, analytic, diagnostic, or therapeutic purposes. As one example, a secondary antibody system is provided with the following components: epitope, primary antibody, secondary antibody, and detection system. The epitope is a portion of an antigen (usually a protein) which is the antigenic determinant that produces an immunological response when introduced into a live animal or is otherwise recognizable by an antibody. In practice, the epitope of interest may be present within a mixture or a tissue. In one embodiment, the epitope is a protein expressed in carcinoma cells in human tissue. The primary antibody is an antibody fragment, a single full-length antibody (monoclonal), or a mixture of different full-length antibodies (polyclonal), which recognizes and binds to the epitope, and preferably binds specifically to the epitope. A full-length antibody in this example comprises two heavy polypeptide chains and two light polypeptide chains joined by disulfide bridges. Each of the chains comprises a constant region (Fc) and a variable region (Fv). There are two antigen binding sites in the full-length antibody. In one embodiment of the present invention, the primary antibody is a full-length aglycosylated antibody (such as that produced in an E. coli-based expression system) which recognizes and binds an epitope of interest. The secondary antibody is an antibody fragment, a single full-length antibody (monoclonal), or a mixture of different full-length antibodies (polyclonal), which recognizes and binds to the aglycosylated primary antibody, and preferably binds specifically to the aglycosylated primary antibody. In one embodiment of the present invention, the secondary antibody is a full-length antibody which recognizes and binds the aglycosylated Fc portion of a full-length primary antibody. In this case, the antibody binding sites are selected and/or engineered to specifically recognize the Fc portion of the aglycosylated primary antibody, with or without the C-terminal lysine residue. In other embodiments, the secondary antibody could be engineered to recognize additional regions (epitopes) of the aglycosylated primary antibody, or additional engineered epitopes including but not limited to polypeptide sequences covalently attached to the primary antibody. The secondary antibody can be directed at single or multiple sites (epitopes) present on full-length aglycosylated antibodies molecules (including various immunoglobulin classes such as IgG, IgA, etc.) or antibody fragments such as Fc or Fab. Therefore, some secondary antibodies generated in this way would have broad specificity for any aglycosylated full-length antibody. The primary and secondary antibodies of the present invention can also include those produced by traditional methods (polyclonal antibody production using immunized rabbits or monoclonal antibody production using mouse hybridomas) and recombinant DNA technology such as phage display methods for identifying antigen-binding polypeptides.

Detection systems generally comprise an agent that is linked to or which binds the secondary antibody, enabling detection, visualization, and/or quantification of the secondary antibody. Various detection systems are well known in the art including but not limited to fluorescent dyes, enzymes, radioactive isotopes, or heavy metals. These may or may not involve direct physical linkage of additional polypeptides to the secondary antibody. Applications of this secondary antibody system include but are not limited to immunohistochemistry, Western blotting, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). For example, in one embodiment for use in immunohistochemistry, the epitope of interest would be present on a thin section of tissue, then an aglycosylated primary antibody would be applied to the tissue and allowed to bind the epitope. The unbound primary antibody would be removed, and then a secondary antibody capable of specifically binding the aglycosylated primary antibody is applied to the tissue and allowed to bind to the primary antibody. The unbound secondary antibody would be removed, and then detection system reagents applied. For example, if the secondary antibody were linked to an enzyme, then colorigenic enzymatic substrates would be applied to the tissue and allowed to react. Direct microscopic or fluoroscopic visualization of the reactive enzymatic substrates could then be performed. Other detection methods are well known in the art. The advantages of a system using secondary antibodies that recognize aglycosylated antibodies include, without limitation, the following: 1) increased specificity in immunohistochemistry because the secondary antibody is designed to bind the aglycosylated Fc portion of the primary antibody which is not otherwise present in eukaryotic tissues; 2) decreased background staining because of increased specificity for the primary antibody; 3) decreased cost of secondary antibody system production because the primary and/or secondary antibodies can be generated in prokaryotes such as E. coli; and 4) avoiding unnecessary utilization of mammals, including mice and rabbits, because the entire process of antibody development can be performed in prokaryotes such as E. coli.

Enzymes Used in Industrial Applications. Many industrial processes utilize enzymes that can be produced by the methods of the invention. These processes include treatment of wastewater and other bioremediation and/or detoxification processes; bleaching of materials in the paper and textile industries; and degradation of biomass into material that can be fermented efficiently into biofuels. In many instances it would be desirable to produce enzymes for these applications in microbial host cells or preferably in bacterial host cells, but the active enzyme is difficult to express in large quantities due to problems with enzyme folding and/or a requirement for a cofactor. In certain embodiments of the invention, the inducible coexpression methods of the invention are used to produce enzymes with industrial applications, such as arabinose- and xylose-utilization enzymes (e.g. xylose isomerase (EC 5.3.1.5)) or lignin-degrading peroxidases (e.g. lignin peroxidase (EC 1.11.1.14), manganese peroxidase (EC 1.11.1.13), versatile peroxidase (EC 1.11.1.16), or laccase (EC 1.10.3.2)).

EXAMPLE 1 Introduction of Genomic Alterations into Host Cells to Facilitate Coexpression

As described above, certain changes in host cell gene expression can improve the coexpression of the desired gene product(s). Certain host cells, E. coli ASE(DGH) cells, were derived from E. coli SHuffle® Express cells, and their genotype can be expressed as: E. coli SHuffle® Express ΔaraBAD Δsbm-ygfDGH ΔaraEp::J23104. The E. coli ASE(DGH) cells were produced as follows: deletions and alterations were made in the E. coli SHuffle® Express host cell genome by Gene Bridges GmbH (Heidelberg, Germany) using a recombineering method, described as deletion by counterselection, that seamlessly removes genomic sequences. A deletion of the host cell araBAD operon was made to reduce arabinose catabolism by the host cell, so that more of the arabinose inducer will be available for induction of a coexpressed gene product from an expression construct comprising the araBAD promoter. This deletion removes 4269 basepairs of the araBAD operon, corresponding to position 70,135 through 65,867 (minus strand) of the E. coli genome (positions within genomic nucleotide sequences are all given as in Table 1), so that most of the native araBAD promoter through all but a few codons of the AraD coding region are removed. The nucleotide sequence (minus strand) around the deletion junction (position 70,136 position 65,866) is: TTAT|TACG. Another deletion was made within the sbm-ygfDGH (also called scpA-argK-scpBC) operon, eliminating the function of genes involved in the biosynthesis of 2-methylcitrate, to increase sensitivity of the host cell's propionate-inducible promoter to exogenously supplied propionate. The sbm-ygfDGH deletion removes 5542 basepairs (position 3,058,754 through 3,064,295 of the E. coli genome), taking out the sbm-ygfDGH promoter and all of the operon except for the last codon of the ygfH coding sequence, while leaving the adjacent ygfl coding sequence and stop codon intact. The nucleotide sequence (plus strand) around the deletion junction (position 3,058,753 position 3,064,296) is: ACAA GGGT. In addition to these deletions made in the E. coli SHuffle® Express host cell genome, Gene Bridges GmbH introduced a point mutation in the genomic rpsL gene coding sequence, which extends on the minus strand from position 3,472,574 through 3,472,200, changing the A at position 3,472,447 to a G, altering the codon for Lys43 to a codon for Arg, which results in a streptomycin-resistant phenotype when the mutant rpsL-Arg43 gene is expressed. Another alteration to the host cell genome, allowing for more tightly controlled inducible expression as described above, is to make the araE promoter constitutive rather than responsive to arabinose. Most of the native araE promoter, including CRP-cAMP and AraC binding sites, was removed by deleting 97 basepairs (position 2,980,335 through 2,980,239 (minus strand)) and replacing that sequence with the 35-basepair sequence of the constitutive J23104 promoter (SEQ ID NO:1; the nucleotide sequence of J23104 was obtained from the partsregistry.org website, parts.igem.org/Main_Page). The resulting junction site sequences within the altered araE promoter are: TGAA TTGA TAGC TTCA. An E. coli host cell, such as an E. coli SHuffle® Express host cell, with any of these genomic alterations, or any combination of them, can be employed in the inducible coexpression of gene products.

EXAMPLE 2 Expression Vectors Comprising an Inducible Promoter A. Expression Vector pPRO43

The expression vector pPRO43 (SEQ ID NO:2) is used for expressing gene products of interest from the propionate-inducible prpBCDE promoter, and was constructed with reference to the nucleotide sequence of the pPRO33 expression vector. The nucleotide sequence of pPRO33 was compiled from the sequences of the pBAD18 vector (GenBank Accession No. X81838.1), the E. coli genomic sequence of the prpR-P_(p)r_(p)B region, and the pBAD33 vector, as described in Guzman et al., “Tight regulation, modulation, and high-level expression by vectors containing the arabinose PBAD promoter”, J Bacteriol 1995 Jul; 177(14): 4121-4130, and in U.S. Pat. No. 8,178,338 B2; May 15 2012; Keasling, Jay. The nucleotide sequence of pPRO33 was confirmed by sequencing and is provided in SEQ ID NO:3.

In pPRO43 the nucleotide sequence encoding the transcriptional activator prpR has been optimized for expression in E. coli by DNA2.0 (Menlo Park, Calif.) using methods such as those described in Welch et al., “Design parameters to control synthetic gene expression in Escherichia coli”, PLoS One 2009 Sep. 14; 4(9): e7002; doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0007002. The optimized prpR sequences in pPRO43 include the RBS and other sequences upstream of the prpR coding sequence, which is nucleotides 1593 through 7 of SEQ ID NO:2, on the opposite strand from that shown. The pPRO43 vector also has only one HindIll restriction site, which is in the multiple cloning site (MCS), in contrast with pPRO33 which has two HindIII sites, one in the MCS and a second in the prpR coding sequence.

B. Expression Vectors pPRO430 and pPRO430(CloDF13)

Expression vector pPRO430 (SEQ ID NO:4) was synthesized by DNA2.0, based on the nucleotide sequence of pPRO43 (SEQ ID NO:2). The pPRO430 vector is similar to pPRO43 in that both contain the p15 origin of replication, a gene conferring resistance to chloramphenical (Cm^(R)), the prpR coding sequence optimized for expression in E. coli described above, and a cloning site downstream of the propionate-inducible prpBCDE promoter into which a coding sequence can be inserted. The pPRO430 expression vector differs from pPRO43 in that it has an optimized RBS sequence—AGGAGGAAAACATA (nucleotides 3566-3579 of SEQ ID NO:4)—upstream of the cloning site. The pPRO430 expression vector has also been streamlined relative to pPRO43 by the removal of some nucleotide sequences and the use of shorter terminators, with the result that the pPRO430 nucleotide sequence (SEQ ID NO:4) has only 3698 bases, compared to the pPRO43 nucleotide sequence (SEQ ID NO:2) at 5883 bases. The pPRO430(CloDF13) expression vector (SEQ ID NO:5) is identical to pPRO430 except that the p15 origin of replication in pPRO430, flanked by BfuAl restriction sites, is replaced by the higher-copy-number CloDF13 origin of replication in pPRO430(CloDF13).

C. Expression Vector pBAD240

The expression vector pBAD240 (SEQ ID NO:6) was synthesized by DNA2.0, based on the nucleotide sequence of pBAD24 (GenBank Database Accession No. X81837.1 (25 Oct. 1995)). The expression vector pBAD240 differs from pBAD24 in having an optimized RBS sequence—AGGAGGTAAAAA (nucleotides 3125-3136 of SEQ ID NO:6)—upstream of the cloning site into which a coding sequence can be inserted. The pBAD240 nucleotide sequence was also streamlined relative to pBAD24 by the removal of some nucleotide sequences and the use of shorter terminators, with the result that the pBAD240 nucleotide sequence (SEQ ID NO:C) has only 3255 bases, compared to the pBAD24 nucleotide sequence at 4542 bases. The pBAD240 expression vector also includes a gene conferring resistance to kanamycin (Kan^(R)), rather than the ampicillin-resistance gene that is in pBAD24.

D. Expression Vectors pPRO44 and pPRO45

Expression vectors pPRO44 (SEQ ID NO:7) and pPRO45 (SEQ ID NO:8) were created based on the nucleotide sequence of pPRO43 (SEQ ID NO:2), with different origins of replication to be used in the pPRO44 (RSF1030) and pPRO45 (CloDF13) expression vectors. Primers were designed for pPRO43, the RSF1030 origin of replication, and the CloDF13 origin of replication, in order to add a Spel restriction site upstream and an AatlI restriction site downstream of each origin of replication sequence. The pPRO43 and RSF1030 nucleotide sequences were amplified using those primers (SEQ ID Nos 9 and 10, and SEQ ID Nos 11 and 12, respectively), the amplified products were digested with Spel and AatlI, and the desired restriction fragments were gel purified and ligated together to create pPRO44 (SEQ ID NO:7). The resulting pPRO44 expression vector was sequenced to confirm that no mutations were introduced through PCR amplification. To create pPRO45, the CloDF13 nucleotide sequence was amplified using primers (SEQ ID Nos 13 and 14) to add Spel and AatlI sites, the CloDF13 amplification product and pPRO44 were digested with Spel and AatlI restriction enzymes and the desired fragments were gel purified, and then ligated together to form pPRO45 (SEQ ID NO:8). The CloDF13 portion of pPRO45 was sequenced to confirm that no mutations were introduced through PCR amplification.

EXAMPLE 3 Use of Dual-Promoter Vector pSOL for Inducible Coexpression of Fluorescent Proteins in Bacterial Cells A. Construction of the Dual-Promoter pSOL Expression Vector

An expression vector comprising two different inducible promoters, referred to as ‘dual vector’ or ‘pSOL’, is shown schematically in FIG. 5. This vector was synthesized by DNA2.0 (Menlo Park, Calif.) and contains several polynucleotide sequences, or ‘elements’, optimized for expression in E. coli host cells. A description of the polynucleotide elements utilized in pSOL is provided below as Table 4; the nucleotide sequence of pSOL is provided as SEQ ID NO:15.

TABLE 4 Polynucleotide Elements of pSOL Dual-Promoter Expression Vector Position of element in SEQ ID Name of element: NO: 15 (or its complement): Description of element: BfuAI complement (29-38) BfuAI restriction site Ori_pBR 39-651 pBR322 (pMB1) origin of replication ROP complement (703-894) Coding sequence: E. coli regulatory protein rop (RNA one modulator rom) BfuAI 895-900 BfuAI restriction site Kan-R complement (901-1710) Coding sequence: kanamycin resistance protein P_kan complement (1711-1832) Promoter for expression of kanamycin resistance protein term. apFAB389 complement (1833-1923) Terminator apFAB389 (BIOFAB, Emeryville, California) BsmBI complement (1924-1929) BsmBI restriction site araC complement (1930-2808) Coding sequence: AraC transcriptional regulator protein MKS complement (2809-2817) Coding sequence: MKS (methionine- lysine-serine) rbs complement (2818-2840) Ribosome binding site araC promoter complement (2959-2987) Promoter for expression of AraC araBAD promoter 3084-3111 Promoter from araBAD operon for expression of inserted coding sequences NheI 3134-3139 Nhel restriction site optimized RBS 3140-3151 Optimized ribosome binding site (as in pBAD240) BsaI complement (3158-3163) BsaI restriction site BsaI 3164-3169 BsaI restriction site XbaI 3172-3177 XbaI restriction site term. apFAB391 3178-3259 Terminator apFAB391 (BIOFAB, Emeryville, California) term. apFAB381 complement (3260-3349) Terminator apFAB391 (BIOFAB, Emeryville, California) opt. prpR complement (3350-4936) Optimized coding sequence: PrpR transcriptional regulator protein prpB promoter 5114-5129 Promoter from prpBCDE operon for expression of inserted coding sequences HindIII 5166-5171 HindIII restriction site rbs 5172-5185 Optimized ribosome binding site (as in pPRO430) BsaI complement (5186-5191) BsaI restriction site BsaI 5192-5197 BsaI restriction site Xho 5199-5204 XhoI restriction site 3 frame stop 5205-5215 Stop codons in all three forward reading frames term. apFAB390 5216-5304 Terminator apFAB390 (BIOFAB, Emeryville, California)

In particular, the pSOL expression vector comprises two different inducible promoters that can be used for the inducible coexpression of proteins of interest: an arabinose-inducible araBAD promoter and a propionate-inducible prpBCDE promoter. Variants of pSOL can also be used for the inducible coexpression of proteins of interest, such as an expression vector based on pSOL in which the positions of the araBAD promoter and the prpBCDE promoter are switched relative to the origin of replication. Further useful variants of pSOL expression vectors include those in which the coding sequence for the AraC transcriptional activator and/or the coding sequence for the PrpR transcriptional activator are not present in the expression vector, but are instead expressed from a separate polynucleotide such as a different extrachromosomal element, or the host genome. Additional variants of pSOL expression vectors are those comprising a third inducible promoter inserted, for example, between pSOL nucleotide positions 5304 and 29 of SEQ ID NO:15, so that the third inducible promoter would be downstream of the prpB promoter and its associated cloning sites and terminator, and oriented in the same direction as the prpB promoter. The third inducible promoter in such variants of pSOL expression vectors could for example be a rhamnose-inducible promoter such as the rhaSR promoter, a xylose-inducible promoter such as the xylAB promoter, or a promoter inducible by phosphate depletion such as the phoA promoter.

B. Inducible Coexpression of Fluorescent Proteins

To compare levels of coexpression from the dual-promoter pSOL vector with coexpression from a combination of pBAD24 and pPRO33 expression vectors, the pBAD24 and pPRO33 vectors were used to express a yellow fluorescent protein (YellowFP) and a red fluorescent protein (RedFP), respectively. The L-arabinose-inducible araBAD promoter in pSOL was used to express YellowFP, and the propionate-inducible prpBCDE promoter was used to express RedFP. The YellowFP has maximal emission at 528 nm-530 nm with excitation at 515 nm (Nagai et al., “A variant of yellow fluorescent protein with fast and efficient maturation for cell-biological applications”, Nat Biotechnol 2002 Jan; 20(1): 87-90), and the RedFP has maximal emission at 610 nm with excitation at 587 nm (Shaner et al., “Improved monomeric red, orange and yellow fluorescent proteins derived from Discosoma sp. red fluorescent protein”, Nat Biotechnol 2004 Dec; 22(12): 1567-1572; Epub 2004 Nov. 21).

To construct the pBAD24-YellowFP and pPRO33-RedFP plasmids, the coding sequences for YellowFP and RedFP were optimized for expression in E. coli by DNA 2.0. The optimized coding sequences for YellowFP and RedFP were digested with both Nhel and SalI, and the digested inserts ligated into Nhel/SalI-cut pBAD24 and pPRO33, respectively. In the case of pSOL, DNA2.0 used the amplification-based Electra cloning system to insert the optimized coding sequences for YellowFP and for RedFP into the pSOL expression vector downstream of the optimized ribosome binding sites in the araBAD promoter and prpBCDE promoter regions, respectively. The pBAD24-YellowFP and pPRO33-RedFP expression constructs were co-transformed into E. coli ASE(DGH) cells (E. coli ASE(DGH) cells are described in Example 1), and pSOL-YellowFP-RedFP expression constructs were also separately transformed into E. coli ASE(DGH) cells.

Cultures of pBAD24-YellowFP/pPRO33-RedFP in ASE(DGH) (‘pBAD, pPRO’) and pSOL-YellowFP-RedFP in ASE(DGH) ('pSOL') were grown overnight at 37 degrees C. with shaking at 275 RPM in LB medium containing chloramphenicol plus ampicillin or containing kanamycin, respectively. At an OD600 of 0.7, the cells were diluted in 2×6 mL of LB medium plus antibiotics to an OD600 of 0.01 and grown at 30 degrees C. with shaking at 275 RPM until reaching an OD600 of 0.75. Cells were pelleted at 3800× g for 7 minutes at 30 degrees C., and were resuspended in M9 medium plus antibiotics with no additional carbon source to an OD600 of 0.7. The resuspended cells were plated in a multi-well plate at 200 microliters per well as follows:

Rows A, B: pBAD24-YellowFP/pPRO33-RedFP in ASE(DGH) colony 1

Rows C, D: pBAD24-YellowFP/pPRO33-RedFP in ASE(DGH) colony 2

Rows E, F: pSOL-YellowFP-RedFP in ASE(DGH) colony 1

Row G, H: pSOL-YellowFP-RedFP in ASE(DGH) colony 2

Cells were induced by the addition of varying concentrations of propionate (by hand) and L-arabinose (by digital dispenser), with propionate concentrations of 0 mM, 1 mM, 2.5 mM, 5 mM, and 20 mM and L-arabinose concentrations of 0 micromolar, 0.67 micromolar, 3.33 micromolar, 6.66 micromolar, and 66.61 micromolar.

The plates were incubated in a Biotek Synergy™ 4 microplate reader (BioTek Instruments Inc., Winooski, Vt.) at 30 degrees C. using the “Fast” shake speed, and fluorescence was monitored every 15 minutes for 8 hours. Fluorescence values were averaged for samples cultured in the same inducer concentrations, and the fluorescence plotted over time as shown in FIGS. 6 and 7. FIG. 6 shows the levels of fluoresence from RedFP over time, expressed from a propionate-inducible prpBCDE promoter. The inducer concentrations for each averaged group of samples are shown in the legend, with the propionate concentration listed first, followed by the L-arabinose concentration. FIG. 7 shows the levels of fluoresence from YellowFP over time, expressed from an L-arabinose-inducible araBAD promoter. The inducer concentrations for each averaged group of samples are shown in the legend, with the L-arabinose concentration listed first, followed by the propionate concentration. For each combination of inducer concentrations, the expression of the fluorescent protein being measured, as indicated by the level of fluorescence observed, was higher from the inducible promoter present on the pSOL dual-promoter expression vector than from the corresponding inducible promoter present in the pBAD24-YellowFP/pPRO33-RedFP combination. This increased level of fluorescent protein expression from pSOL relative to pBAD24 and pPRO33 was observed not only for the combinations of inducer concentrations shown in FIGS. 6 and 7, but also for the combinations of inducer concentrations that were omitted from the graphs for the sake of clarity.

EXAMPLE 4 Inducible Coexpression of Infliximab

Infliximab is a chimeric monoclonal antibody that binds to TNF-alpha, an inflammatory cytokine, and is used in the treatment of conditions that involve TNF-alpha such as autoimmune diseases (Crohn's disease, rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis, etc.). Infliximab is formed from a heavy chain (amino acid sequence shown as SEQ ID NO:16) and a light chain (amino acid sequence shown as SEQ ID NO:17); each of these chains has a variable domain sequence derived from mouse anti-TNF-alpha antibodies, and a human constant domain. Codon optimization for expression in E. coli and synthesis of polynucleotides encoding SEQ ID NOs 16 and 17 was performed by DNA2.0 (Menlo Park, Calif.).

The DNA2.0 Electra cloning method (www.dna20.com/products/expression-vectors/electra-system) is used to create the infliximab expression constructs. The expression construct formed by inserting the optimized coding sequence for the infliximab heavy chain into the Electra cloning site of the pBAD240 expression vector is pBAD240-Infliximab_HC, which has the nucleotide sequence shown as SEQ ID NO:18. The expression construct formed by inserting the optimized coding sequence for the infliximab light chain into the Electra cloning site of the pPRO430 expression vector is pPRO430-Infliximab_LC, which has the nucleotide sequence shown as SEQ ID NO:19. Both the optimized infliximab heavy and light chain coding sequences were cloned into the pSOL expression vector (SEQ ID NO:15) in a similar way, with the heavy chain expressed from the araBAD promoter, and the light chain from the prpBCDE promoter. The resulting pSOL-Infliximab expression vector has the nucleotide sequence shown in SEQ ID NO:20. The pBAD240-Infliximab_HC and pPRO430-Infliximab_LC expression constructs are used to cotransform E. coli ASE(DGH) cells through heat shock at 42 degrees C., followed by growth at 37 degrees C. overnight, and the pSOL-Infliximab expression construct is similarly transformed into E. coli ASE(DGH) cells, creating ASE(DGH)(pBAD240-Infliximab_HC/pPRO430-Infliximab_LC) cells and ASE(DGH)(pSOL-Infliximab) cells.

These cells are grown generally as described in Example 3, including the addition of selective compounds such as kanamycin and/or chloramphenicol as needed, and for induction of antibody expression cells are resuspended in M9 medium with no additional carbon source at an OD600 of approximately 0.7 (0.6 -1.0). The cells are then induced by addition of arabinose (initially at concentrations including 0.1%) and propionate (initially at concentrations including 50 mM). Adjustment of the concentrations of arabinose and propionate can be made as described in Example 5. After induction, the host cells in which antibodies have been produced are disrupted by chemical lysis using enzymes such as lysozyme, or by mechanical disruption methods such as sonication or microfluidization using a Microfluidics model M-110Y microfluidizer (Microfluidics International Corp., Westwood, Mass.). Centrifugation at 20,000× g for 15 minutes at room temperature is used to separate out the insoluble fraction, and the supernatant containing soluble protein including the expressed antibodies is collected.

The infliximab antibodies are detected and quantified using a capillary electrophoresis Western blot, run on a WES system (ProteinSimple, San Jose, Calif.), according to the manufacturer's instructions. Soluble protein extracts are loaded into the capillary set, proteins are electrophoretically separated by size, and then the antibodies in the samples are detected with a blocking step (instead of the use of a primary antibody), and incubation with an HRP-conjugated goat anti-human secondary antibody that recognizes human antibody heavy and light chains. Antibody detection is accomplished by addition of the chemiluminescent substrate to the capillary and the direct capture of the light emitted during the enzyme-catalyzed reaction. Molecular weight estimates are calculated using a standard curve generated using six biotinylated proteins ranging from 12 k to 230 kDa for each run. Fluorescent standards are included in the sample loading buffer, giving each sample an internal standard that is used to align the sample with the molecular weight standard.

To determine the amount of protein present at a given molecular weight, known amounts of a protein standard are run in some of the capillaries. In this case, serial dilutions are prepared of commerically available infliximab having a known protein concentration, starting for example at 10 micrograms/mL and diluted down to 1.0 nanograms/mL. Approximately five WES system capillaries are used to run the serial dilution. For each infliximab protein band in both the experimental and the serial dilution capillaries, a curve is generated by the WES system software representing the protein band's chemiluminescence intensity, and the area under each curve is evaluated, with a standard curve of these areas plotted for the infliximab protein bands in the infliximab serial dilution capillaries. To determine the concentration of the experimental samples, the area under each curve representing the chemiluminescence intensity of an experimental infliximab sample can the compared to the standard curve generated for the samples of known infliximab concentration.

The infliximab antibodies can be further purified as described in Example 7, and additional characterization of the infliximab antibodies is described in Example 8 (measurement of antibody binding affinity) and Example 9 (characterizing the disulfide bonds present in coexpression products).

EXAMPLE 5 Titration of Coexpression by Varying Inducer Concentration

To optimize production of a multimeric product using the inducible coexpression systems of the invention, it is possible to independently adjust or titrate the concentrations of the inducers. Host cells containing L-arabinose-inducible and propionate-inducible expression constructs are grown to the desired density (such as an OD₆₀₀ of approximately 0.5) in M9 minimal medium containing the appropriate antibiotics, then cells are aliquoted into small volumes of M9 minimal medium, optionally prepared with no carbon source such as glycerol, and with the appropriate antibiotics and varying concentrations of each inducer. The concentration of L-arabinose necessary to induce expression is typically less than 2%. In a titration experiment, the tested concentrations of L-arabinose can range from 2% to 1.5%, 1%, 0.5%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.04%, 0.03%, 0.02%, 0.01%, 0.005%, 0.002%, and 0.001%. The concentrations of L-rhamnose or D-xylose necessary to induce expression of L-rhamnose-inducible or D-xylose-inducible promoters are tested similarly, with the tested concentrations ranging from 5% to 0.01%. For each concentration ‘x’ of L-arabinose (or L-rhamnose or D-xylose) that is tested, the concentration of a different inducer such as propionate, added to each of the tubes containing concentration ‘x’ of the first inducer, is varied in each series of samples, which in the case of propionate range from 1 M to 750 mM, 500 mM, 250 mM, 100 mM, 75 mM, 50 mM, 25 mM, 10 mM, 5 mM, and 1 mM. Alternatively, titration experiments can start at a ‘standard’ combination of inducer concentrations, which is 0.002% of any of L-arabinose, L-rhamnose, or D-xylose, and/or 50 mM propionate, and test new combinations of inducer concentrations that vary from that of the ‘standard’ combination. Similar titration experiments can be performed with any combination of inducers used in an inducible coexpression system of the invention, including but not limited to L-arabinose, propionate, L-rhamnose, and D-xylose. After growth in the presence of inducers for 6 hours, the cells are pelleted, the desired product is extracted from the cells, and the yield of product per mass value of cells is determined by a quantitative immunological assay such as ELISA, or by purification of the product and quantification by UV absorbance at 280 nm.

It is also possible to titrate inducer concentrations using a high-throughput assay, in which the proteins to be expressed are engineered to include a fluorescent protein moiety, such as that provided by the mKate2 red fluorescent protein (Evrogen, Moscow, Russia), or the enhanced green fluorescent proteins from Aequorea victoria and Bacillus cereus. Another approach to determining the amount and activity of gene products produced by different concentrations of inducers in a high-throughput titration experiment, is to use a sensor capable of measuring biomolecular binding interactions, such as a sensor that detects surface plasmon resonance, or a sensor that employs bio-layer interferometry (BLI) (for example, an Octet® QK system from forteBIO, Menlo Park, Calif.).

EXAMPLE 6 Measurement of the Strength of Promoters and the Homogeneity of Inducible Expression

The strength of a promoter is measured as the amount of transcription of a gene product initiated at that promoter, relative to a suitable control. For constitutive promoters directing expression of a gene product in an expression construct, a suitable control could use the same expression construct, except that the ‘wild-type’ version of the promoter, or a promoter from a ‘housekeeping’ gene, is used in place of the promoter to be tested. For inducible promoters, expression of the gene product from the promoter can be compared under inducing and non-inducing conditions.

A. Measuring Promoter Strength Using Quantitative PCR to Determine Levels of RNA Transcribed From the Promoter

The method of De Mey et al. (“Promoter knock-in: a novel rational method for the fine tuning of genes”, BMC Biotechnol 2010 Mar. 24; 10: 26) is used to determine the relative strength of promoters in host cells that can be grown in culture. Host cells containing an expression construct with the promoter to be tested, and control host cells containing a control expression construct, are grown in culture in triplicate. One-ml samples are collected at OD₆₀₀=1.0 for mRNA and protein collection. Total RNA extraction is done using an RNeasy mini kit (QIAGEN, The Netherlands). The purity of RNA is verified on a FA-agarose gel as recommended by QIAGEN and the RNA concentration is determined by measuring the absorbance at 260 nm. Two micrograms of RNA is used to synthesize cDNA using a random primer and RevertAid H Minus M-MuIV reverse transcriptase (Fermentas, Glen Burnie, Maryland). The strength of the promoter is determined by RT-qPCR carried out in an iCycler IQ® (Bio-Rad, Eke, Belgium) using forward and reverse primers designed to amplify the cDNA corresponding to the transcript produced from the promoter. (For this purpose, the De Mey et al. authors used the Fw-ppc-qPCR and Rv-ppc-qPCR primers, and the primers Fw-rpoB-qPCR and Rv-rpoB-qPCR from the control housekeeping gene rpoB.) SYBR GreenER qPCR supermix (Life Technologies, Grand Island, N.Y.) is used to perform a brief UDG (uracil DNA glycosylase) incubation (50° C. for 2 min) immediately followed by PCR amplification (95° C. for 8.5 min; 40 cycles of 95° C. for 15 s and 60° C. for 1 min) and melting curve analysis (95° C. for 1 min, 55° C. for 1 min and 80 cycles of 55° C.+0.5° C./cycles for 10 s) to identify the presence of primer dimers and analyze the specificity of the reaction. This UDG incubation step before PCR cycling destroys any contaminating dU-containing products from previous reactions.

UDG is then inactivated by the high temperatures during normal PCR cycling, thereby allowing the amplification of genuine target sequences. Each sample is performed in triplicate. The relative expression ratios are calculated using the “Delta-delta ct method” of PE Applied Biosystems (PerkinElmer, Forster City, Calif.).

B. Measuring Inducible Promoter Strength and Homogeneity of Induction Using a Fluorescent Reporter Gene

These experiments are performed using the methods of Khlebnikov et al. (“Regulatable arabinose-inducible gene expression system with consistent control in all cells of a culture”, J Bacteriol 2000 Dec; 182(24): 7029-7034). Experiments measuring the induction of an inducible promoter are performed in C medium supplemented with 3.4% glycerol as a carbon source (Helmstetter, “DNA synthesis during the division cycle of rapidly growing Escherichia coli B/r”, J Mol Biol 1968 Feb. 14; 31(3): 507-518). E. coli strains containing expression constructs comprising at least one inducible promoter controlling expression of a fluorescent reporter gene are grown at 37° C. under antibiotic selection to an optical density at 600 nm (OD600) of 0.6 to 0.8. Cells are collected by centrifugation (15,000× g), washed in C medium without a carbon source, resuspended in fresh C medium containing antibiotics, glycerol, and/or inducer (for the induction of gene expression) to an OD600 of 0.1 to 0.2, and incubated for 6 h. Samples are taken routinely during the growth period for analysis. Culture fluorescence is measured on a Versafluor Fluorometer (Bio-Rad Inc., Hercules, Calif.) with 360/40-nm-wavelength excitation and 520/10-nm-wavelength emission filters. The strength of expression from an inducible promoter upon induction can be expressed as the ratio of the maximum population-averaged fluorescence (fluorescence/OD ratio) of the induced cells relative to that of control (such as uninduced) cells. To determine the homogeneity of induction within the cell population, flow cytometry is performed on a Beckman-Coulter EPICS XL flow cytometer (Beckman Instruments Inc., Palo Alto, Calif.) equipped with an argon laser (emission at a wavelength of 488 nm and 15 mW) and a 525-nm-wavelength band pass filter. Prior to the analysis, sampled cells are washed with phosphate- buffered saline that had been filtered (filter pore size, 0.22 micrometers), diluted to an OD600 of 0.05, and placed on ice. For each sample, 30,000 events are collected at a rate between 500 and 1,000 events/s. The percentage of induced (fluorescent) cells in each sample can be calculated from the flow cytometry data.

EXAMPLE 7

Purification of Antibodies

Antibodies produced by the inducible coexpression systems of the invention are purified by centrifuging samples of lysed host cells at 10,000× g for 10 minutes to remove any cells and debris. The supernatant is filtered through a 0.45 micrometer filter. A 1-ml Recombinant Protein G—Sepharose® 4B column (Life Technologies, Grand Island, N.Y.) is set up to achieve flow rates of 1 ml/min, and is used with the following buffers: binding buffer: 0.02 M sodium phosphate, pH 7.0; elution buffer: 0.1 M glycine-HCl, pH 2.7; and neutralization buffer: 1 M Tris-HCl, pH 9.0. The column is equilibrated with 5 column volumes (5 ml) of binding buffer, and then the sample is applied to the column. The column is washed with 5-10 column volumes of the binding buffer to remove impurities and unbound material, continuing until no protein is detected in the eluent (determined by UV absorbance at 280 nm). The column is then eluted with 5 column volumes of elution buffer, and the column is immediately re-equilibrated with 5-10 column volumes of binding buffer.

EXAMPLE 8 Measurement of Antibody Binding Affinity

The antibody binding affinity, expressed as “Kd” or “Kd value”, is measured by a radiolabeled antigen-binding assay (RIA) performed with the Fab version of an antibody of interest and its antigen as described by the following assay. Production of the Fab version of a full-length antibody is well known in the art. Solution-binding affinity of Fabs for antigen is measured by equilibrating Fab with a minimal concentration of (¹²⁵I)-labeled antigen in the presence of a titration series of unlabeled antigen, then capturing bound antigen with an anti-Fab antibody-coated plate (see, for example, Chen et al., “Selection and analysis of an optimized anti-VEGF antibody: crystal structure of an affinity-matured Fab in complex with antigen”, J Mol Biot 1999 Nov. 5; 293(4): 865-881). To establish conditions for the assay, microtiter plates (DYNEX Technologies, Inc., Chantilly, Va.) are coated overnight with 5 micrograms/ml of a capturing anti-Fab antibody (Cappel Labs, West Chester, Pa.) in 50 mM sodium carbonate (pH 9.6), and subsequently blocked with 2% (w/v) bovine serum albumin in PBS for two to five hours at room temperature (approximately 23° C.). In a non-adsorbent plate (Nunc #269620; Thermo Scientific, Rochester, N.Y.), 100 pM or 26 pM [¹²⁵I]-antigen are mixed with serial dilutions of a Fab of interest (e.g., consistent with assessment of the anti-VEGF antibody, Fab-12, in Presta et al., “Humanization of an anti-vascular endothelial growth factor monoclonal antibody for the therapy of solid tumors and other disorders”, Cancer Res 1997 Oct. 15; 57(20): 4593-4599). The Fab of interest is then incubated overnight; however, the incubation may continue for a longer period (e.g., about 65 hours) to ensure that equilibrium is reached. Thereafter, the mixtures are transferred to the capture plate for incubation at room temperature (e.g., for one hour). The solution is then removed and the plate washed eight times with 0.1% TWEEN-20υ surfactant in PBS. When the plates have dried, 150 microliters/well of scintillant (MICROSCINT-20™; PerkinElmer, Waltham, Mass.) is added, and the plates are counted on a TOPCOUNT™ gamma counter (PerkinElmer) for ten minutes. Concentrations of each Fab that give less than or equal to 20% of maximal binding are chosen for use in competitive-binding assays.

Alternatively, the Kd or Kd value is measured by using surface-plasmon resonance assays using a BIACORE®-2000 or a BIACORE®-3000 instrument (BlAcore, Inc., Piscataway, N.J.) at 25° C. with immobilized antigen CM5 chips at ˜10 response units (RU). Briefly, carboxymethylated dextran biosensor chips (CM5, BIAcore Inc.) are activated with N-ethyl-N′-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)-carbodiimide hydrochloride (EDC) and N-hydroxysuccinimide (NHS) according to the supplier's instructions. Antigen is diluted with 10 mM sodium acetate, pH 4.8, to 5 micrograms/ml (˜0.2 micromolar) before injection at a flow rate of 5 microliters/minute to achieve approximately 10 RU of coupled protein. Following the injection of antigen, 1 M ethanolamine is injected to block unreacted groups. For kinetics measurements, two-fold serial dilutions of Fab (0.78 nM to 500 nM) are injected in PBS with 0.05% TWEEN 20™ surfactant (PBST) at 25° C. at a flow rate of approximately 25 microliters/min. Association rates (k_(on)) and dissociation rates (k_(off)) are calculated using a simple one-to-one Langmuir binding model (BIAcore® Evaluation Software version 3.2) by simultaneously fitting the association and dissociation sensorgrams. The equilibrium dissociation constant (Kd) is calculated as the ratio k_(off)/k_(on). If the on-rate exceeds 10⁶M⁻¹ s^(−1 l)by the surface-plasmon resonance assay above, then the on-rate can be determined by using a fluorescent quenching technique that measures the increase or decrease in fluorescence-emission intensity (excitation=295 nm; emission=340 nm, 16 nm band-pass) at 25° C. of a 20 nM anti-antigen antibody (Fab form) in PBS, pH 7.2, in the presence of increasing concentrations of antigen as measured in a spectrometer, such as a stop-flow-equipped spectrophotometer (Aviv Instruments) or a 8000-series SLM-AMINCO™ spectrophotometer (ThermoSpectronic) with a stirred cuvette.

Another method for determining the equilibrium dissociation constant (Kd) for antibody-antigen binding uses the Octet Red system (ForteBio, Pall Corporation, Port Washington, N.Y.) (www.fortebio.com/octet-RED96.html). The initial measurement step determines the baseline, followed by loading the His-tagged antigen at a concentration of 25 nM onto Ni-NTA biosensors for 10 minutes in 1× KB+ buffer (0.01% BSA, 0.002% Tween-20 in PBS, pH7.4), followed by another baseline measurement step (1× KB+ buffer only for 2 minutes). The sensor is then dipped into a well containing antibody (the association step) for 10 minutes, followed by a 20-minute wash in 1× KB+ buffer to measure dissociation. The equilibrium dissociation constant (Kd) is calculated as the ratio of k_(off)/k_(on), with the Octet software determining the k_(off) and k_(on) rates.

EXAMPLE 9 Characterizing the Disulfide Bonds Present in Coexpression Products

The number and location of disulfide bonds in protein coexpression products can be determined by digestion of the protein with a protease, such as trypsin, under non-reducing conditions, and subjecting the resulting peptide fragments to mass spectrometry (MS) combining sequential electron transfer dissociation (ETD) and collision-induced dissociation (CID) MS steps (MS2, MS3) (Nili et al., “Defining the disulfide bonds of insulin-like growth factor-binding protein-5 by tandem mass spectrometry with electron transfer dissociation and collision-induced dissociation”, J Biol Chem 2012 Jan. 6; 287(2): 1510-1519; Epub 2011 Nov. 22).

Digestion of coexpressed protein. To prevent disulfide bond rearrangements, any free cysteine residues are first blocked by alkylation: the coexpressed protein is incubated protected from light with the alkylating agent iodoacetamide (5 mM) with shaking for 30 minutes at 20° C. in buffer with 4 M urea. Alternatively and preferably, NEM is used as the alkylating reagent, with trypsin proteolysis in combination with reduction/alkylation conducted under denaturing conditions (6 M GuaHCl). Following alkylation, the coexpressed protein is separated by non-reducing SDS-PAGE using precast gels. Alternatively, the coexpressed protein is incubated in the gel after electrophoresis with iodoacetamide or NEM, or without as a control. Protein bands are stained, de-stained with double-deionized water, excised, and incubated twice in 500 microliters of 50 mM ammonium bicarbonate, 50% (v/v) acetonitrile while shaking for 30 minutes at 20° C. Protein samples are dehydrated in 100% acetonitrile for 2 minutes, dried by vacuum centrifugation, and rehydrated with 10 mg/ml of trypsin or chymotrypsin in buffer containing 50 mM ammonium bicarbonate and 5 mM calcium chloride for 15 minutes on ice. Excess buffer is removed and replaced with 50 microliters of the same buffer without enzyme, followed by incubation for 16 hours at 37° C. or 20° C., for trypsin and chymotrypsin, respectively, with shaking. Digestions are stopped by addition of 3 microliters of 88% formic acid, and after brief vortexing, the supernatant is removed and stored at −20° C. until analysis. Alternative protein fragmentation methods (LysC, Glu-C, or CNBr) are used if trypsinolysis provides insufficient sequence coverage (<75%). Using the reducing agent TCEP (tris(2-carboxyethyl)phosphine) under acidic conditions in the presence of NEM provides access to fragments with partly intact disulfide linkages. The disulfide-intact digest map is compared to the reduced (DTT or TCEP) digest map.

Localization of disulfide bonds by mass spectrometry. Peptides are injected onto a 1 mm×8 mm trap column (Michrom BioResources, Inc., Auburn, Calif.) at 20 microliters/minute in a mobile phase containing 0.1% formic acid. The trap cartridge is then placed in-line with a 0.5 mm×250 mm column containing 5 mm Zorbax SB-C18 stationary phase (Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, Calif.), and peptides separated by a 2-30% acetonitrile gradient over 90 minutes at 10 microliters/minute with a 1100 series capillary HPLC (Agilent Technologies); alternatively, a C18 column suitable for UPLC is used. Peptides are analyzed using a LTQ Velos linear ion trap with an ETD source (Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc., Waltham, Mass.). Electrospray ionization is performed using a Captive Spray source (Michrom Bioresources, Inc.), or preferably, an uncoated, pulled fused silica emitter (New Objective Inc., Woburn, Mass.) at 3.0 kV. Alternatively, analysis of medium-sized proteolytic fragments is performed using a Thermo LTQ-FT MS (7 Tesla) instrument, or a Synapt G2-Si quadrupole traveling wave ion mobility time-of-flight (ToF) mass spectrometer (Waters Corp., Milford, Mass.). Preferably, peptides are analyzed using an Orbitrap Fusion™ Tribrid™ mass spectrometer (Thermo Fisher Scientific). Disulfide-linked peptides have charge states of +4 or greater following trypsinization due to the presence of two N-termini and two basic residues (arginine or lysine) at the carboxy termini. These disulfide-linked peptides are preferentially isolated by the Orbitrap Fusion™ instrument so that the disulfide bonds can be broken using ETD fragmentation. Survey MS scans are followed by seven data-dependant scans consisting of CID and ETD MS2 scans on the most intense ion in the survey scan, followed by five MS3 CID scans on the first- to fifth-most intense ions in the ETD MS2 scan. CID scans use normalized collision energy of 35, and ETD scans use a 100 ms activation time with supplemental activation enabled. Minimum signals to initiate MS2 CID and ETD scans are 10,000, minimum signals for initiation of MS3 CID scans are 1000, and isolation widths for all MS2 and MS3 scans are 3.0 m/z. The dynamic exclusion feature of the software is enabled with a repeat count of 1, exclusion list size of 100, and exclusion duration of 30 seconds. Inclusion lists to target specific cross-linked species for collection of ETD MS2 scans are used. Separate data files for MS2 and MS3 scans are created by Bioworks 3.3 (Thermo Fisher Scientific) using ZSA charge state analysis. Matching of MS2 and MS3 scans to peptide sequences is performed by Sequest (V27, Rev 12, Thermo Fisher Scientific). The analysis is performed without enzyme specificity, a parent ion mass tolerance of 2.5, fragment mass tolerance of 1.0, and a variable mass of +16 for oxidized methionine residues. Results are then analyzed using the program Scaffold (V3_00_08, Proteome Software, Portland, Oreg.) with minimum peptide and protein probabilities of 95 and 99% being used. Software tools for data interpretation also include Proteome Discoverer™ 2.0 with the Disulfinator node (Thermo Fisher Scientific). Peptides from MS3 results are sorted by scan number, and cysteine containing peptides are identified from groups of MS3 scans produced from the five most intense ions observed in ETD MS2 scans. The identities of cysteine peptides participating in disulfide-linked species are further confirmed by manual examination of the parent ion masses observed in the survey scan and the ETD MS2 scan.

EXAMPLE 10 Isolation of Coexpression Products From Bacterial Cell Periplasm, From Spheroplasts, and From Whole Cells

The inducible coexpression system of the invention can be used to express gene products that accumulate in different compartments of the cell, such as the cytoplasm or periplasm. Host cells such as E. coli or S. cerevisiae have an outer cell membrane or cell wall, and can form spheroplasts when the outer membrane or wall is removed. Coexpressed proteins made in such hosts can be purified specifically from the periplasm, or from spheroplasts, or from whole cells, using the following method (Schoenfeld, “Convenient, rapid enrichment of periplasmic and spheroplasmic protein fractions using the new PeriPreps™ Periplasting Kit”, Epicentre Forum 1998 5(1): 5; see www.epibio.com/newsletter/f5_1/f5_1pp.asp). This method, using the PeriPreps™ Periplasting Kit (Epicentre® Biotechnologies, Madison Wis.; protocol available at www.epibio.com/pdftechlit/107p10612.pdf), is designed for E. coli and other gram negative bacteria, but the general approach can be modified for other host cells such as S. cerevisiae.

1. The bacterial host cell culture is grown to late log phase only, as older cell cultures in stationary phase commonly demonstrate some resistance to lysozyme treatment. If the expression of recombinant protein is excessive, cells may prematurely lyse; therefore, cell cultures are not grown in rich medium or at higher growth temperatures that might induce excessive protein synthesis. Protein expression is then induced; the cells should be in log phase or early stationary phase.

2. The cell culture is pelleted by centrifugation at a minimum of 1,000× g for 10 minutes at room temperature. Note: the cells must be fresh, not frozen. The wet weight of the cell pellet is determined in order to calculate the amount of reagents required for this protocol.

3. The cells are thoroughly resuspended in a minimum of 2 ml of PeriPreps Periplasting Buffer (200 mM Tris-HCl pH 7.5, 20% sucrose, 1 mM EDTA, and 30 U/microliter Ready-Lyse Lysozyme) for each gram of cells, either by vortex mixing or by pipeting until the cell suspension is homogeneous. Note: excessive agitation may cause premature lysing of the spheroplasts resulting in contamination of the periplasmic fraction with cytoplasmic proteins.

4. Incubate for five minutes at room temperature. Ready-Lyse Lysozyme is optimally active at room temperature. Lysis at lower temperatures (0° C.-4° C.) requires additional incubation time; at such temperatures incubation times are extended 2- to 4-fold.

5. Add 3 ml of purified water at 4° C. for each gram of original cell pellet weight (Step 2) and mix by inversion.

6. Incubate for 10 minutes on ice.

7. The lysed cells are pelleted by centrifugation at a minimum of 4,000× g for 15 minutes at room temperature.

8. The supernatant containing the periplasmic fraction is transferred to a clean tube.

9. To degrade contaminating nucleic acids, OmniCleave Endonuclease is optionally added to PeriPreps Lysis Buffer. Inclusion of a nuclease will generally improve the yield of protein and the ease of handling of the lysates, but addition of a nuclease is undesirable in some cases: for example, the use of a nuclease should be avoided if residual nuclease activity or transient exposure to the magnesium cofactor will interfere with subsequent assays or uses of the purified protein. The addition of EDTA to the lysate to inactivate OmniCleave Endonuclease, likewise, may interfere with subsequent assay or use of the purified protein. If nuclease is to be added, 2 microliters of OmniCleave Endonuclease and 10 microliters of 1.0 M MgCl₂ are diluted up to 1 ml with PeriPreps Lysis Buffer (10 mM Tris-HCl pH 7.5, 50 mM KCl, 1 mM EDTA, and 0.1% deoxycholate) for each milliliter of Lysis Buffer needed in Step 10.

10. The pellet is resuspended in 5 ml of PeriPreps Lysis Buffer for each gram of original cell pellet weight.

11. The pellet is incubated at room temperature for 10 minutes (if included, OmniCleave Endonuclease activity will cause a significant decrease in viscosity; the incubation is continued until the cellular suspension has the consistency of water).

12. The cellular debris is pelleted by centrifugation at a minimum of 4,000× g for 15 minutes at 4° C.

13. The supernatant containing the spheroplast fraction is transferred to a clean tube.

14. If OmniCleave Endonuclease was added to the PeriPreps Lysis Buffer, 20 microliters of 500 mM EDTA is added for each milliliter of the resultant spheroplastic fraction, to chelate the magnesium (the final concentration of EDTA in the lysate is 10 mM). Following hydrolysis of nucleic acids with OmniCleave Endonuclease, lysates may contain substantial amounts of mono- or oligonucleotides. The presence of these degradation products may affect further processing of the lysate: for example, nucleotides may decrease the binding capacity of anion exchange resins by interacting with the resin.

The above protocol can be used to prepare total cellular protein with the following modifications. The cells pelleted in Step 2 can be fresh or frozen; at Step 4, the cells are incubated for 15 minutes; Steps 5 through 8 are omitted; at Step 10, 3 ml of PeriPreps Lysis Buffer is added for each gram of original cell pellet weight.

After preparation of periplasmic, or spheroplastic, or whole-cell protein samples, the samples can be analyzed by any of a number of protein characterization and/or quantification methods. In one example, the successful fractionation of periplasmic and spheroplastic proteins is confirmed by analyzing an aliquot of both the periplasmic and spheroplastic fractions by SDS-PAGE (two microliters of each fraction is generally sufficient for visualization by staining with Coomassie Brilliant Blue). The presence of unique proteins or the enrichment of specific proteins in a given fraction indicates successful fractionation. For example, if the host cell contains a high-copy number plasmid with the ampicillin resistance marker, then the presence of β-lactamase (31.5 kDa) mainly in the periplasmic fraction indicates successful fractionation. Other E. coli proteins found in the periplasmic space include alkaline phosphatase (50 kDa) and elongation factor Tu (43 kDa). The amount of protein found in a given fraction can be quantified using any of a number of methods (such as SDS-PAGE and densitometry analysis of stained or labeled protein bands, scintillation counting of radiolabeled proteins, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), or scintillation proximity assay, among other methods.) Comparing the amounts of a protein found in the periplasmic fraction as compared to the spheroplastic fraction indicates the degree to which the protein has been exported from the cytoplasm into the periplasm.

EXAMPLE 11 Determination of Polynucleotide or Amino Acid Sequence Similarity

Percent polynucleotide sequence or amino acid sequence identity is defined as the number of aligned symbols, i.e. nucleotides or amino acids, that are identical in both aligned sequences, divided by the total number of symbols in the alignment of the two sequences, including gaps. The degree of similarity (percent identity) between two sequences may be determined by aligning the sequences using the global alignment method of Needleman and Wunsch (J. Mol. Biol. 48: 443, 1970), as implemented by the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) in the Needleman-Wunsch Global Sequence Alignment Tool, available through the website blast.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Blast.cgi. In one embodiment, the Needleman and Wunsch alignment parameters are set to the default values (Match/Mismatch Scores of 2 and −3, respectively, and Gap Costs for Existence and Extension of 5 and 2, respectively). Other programs used by those skilled in the art of sequence comparison may also be used to align sequences, such as, for example, the basic local alignment search tool or BLAST® program (Altschul et al., “Basic local alignment search tool”, J Mol Biol 1990 Oct. 5; 215(3): 403-410), as implemented by NCBI, using the default parameter settings described at the blast.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Blast.cgi website. The BLAST algorithm has multiple optional parameters including two that may be used as follows: (A) inclusion of a filter to mask segments of the query sequence that have low compositional complexity or segments consisting of short-periodicity internal repeats, which is preferably not utilized or set to ‘off’, and (B) a statistical significance threshold for reporting matches against database sequences, called the ‘Expect’ or E-score (the expected probability of matches being found merely by chance; if the statistical significance ascribed to a match is greater than this E-score threshold, the match will not be reported). If this ‘Expect’ or E-score value is adjusted from the default value (10), preferred threshold values are 0.5, or in order of increasing preference, 0.25, 0.1, 0.05, 0.01, 0.001, 0.0001, 0.00001, and 0.000001.

In practicing the present invention, many conventional techniques in molecular biology, microbiology, and recombinant DNA technology are optionally used. Such conventional techniques relate to vectors, host cells, and recombinant methods. These techniques are well known and are explained in, for example, Berger and Kimmel, Guide to Molecular Cloning Techniques, Methods in Enzymology volume 152 Academic Press, Mc, San Diego, Calif.; Sambrook et al., Molecular Cloning—A Laboratory Manual (3rd Ed.), Vol. 1-3, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y., 2000; and Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, F. M. Ausubel et al., eds., Current Protocols, a joint venture between Greene Publishing Associates, Inc. and John Wiley & Sons, Inc., (supplemented through 2006). Other useful references, for example for cell isolation and culture and for subsequent nucleic acid or protein isolation, include Freshney (1994) Culture of Animal Cells, a Manual of Basic Technique, third edition, Wiley-Liss, New York and the references cited therein; Payne et al. (1992) Plant Cell and Tissue Culture in Liquid Systems John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York, N.Y.; Gamborg and Phillips (Eds.) (1995) Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture; Fundamental Methods Springer Lab Manual, Springer-Verlag (Berlin Heidelberg New York); and Atlas and Parks (Eds.) The Handbook of Microbiological Media (1993) CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla. Methods of making nucleic acids (for example, by in vitro amplification, purification from cells, or chemical synthesis), methods for manipulating nucleic acids (for example, by site-directed mutagenesis, restriction enzyme digestion, ligation, etc.), and various vectors, cell lines, and the like useful in manipulating and making nucleic acids are described in the above references. In addition, essentially any polynucleotide (including labeled or biotinylated polynucleotides) can be custom or standard ordered from any of a variety of commercial sources.

The present invention has been described in terms of particular embodiments found or proposed to comprise certain modes for the practice of the invention. It will be appreciated by those of ordinary skill in the art that, in light of the present disclosure, numerous modifications and changes can be made in the particular embodiments exemplified without departing from the intended scope of the invention.

All cited references, including patent publications, are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. Nucleotide and other genetic sequences, referred to by published genomic location or other description, are also expressly incorporated herein by reference.

SEQUENCES PRESENTED IN THE SEQUENCE LISTING SEQ ID Description; ‘Other NO: Length: Type: Organism: Information’ 1 35 DNA Artificial J23104 promoter Sequence 2 5883 DNA Artificial Expression vector pPRO43 Sequence 3 5882 DNA Artificial pPRO33 vector Sequence 4 3698 DNA Artificial Expression vector pPRO430 Sequence 5 3610 DNA Artificial Expression vector pPRO430(CloDF13) Sequence 6 3255 DNA Artificial Expression vector pBAD240 Sequence 7 5802 DNA Artificial Expression vector pPRO44 Sequence 8 5791 DNA Artificial Expression vector pPRO45 Sequence 9 25 DNA Artificial pPRO_REV_SpeI primer Sequence 10 28 DNA Artificial pPRO_FOR_AatII primer Sequence 11 46 DNA Artificial RSF1030_FOR_SpeI primer Sequence 12 52 DNA Artificial RSF1030_REV_AatII primer Sequence 13 46 DNA Artificial CloDF13_FOR_SpeI primer Sequence 14 56 DNA Artificial CloDF13_REV_AatII primer Sequence 15 5304 DNA Artificial Dual-promoter vector, pSOL Sequence 16 451 PRT Artificial Infliximab chimeric (murine variable doman, Sequence human constant domain) heavy chain 17 215 PRT Artificial Infliximab chimeric (murine variable doman, Sequence human constant domain) light chain 18 4594 DNA Artificial pBAD240-Infliximab_HC expression construct Sequence 19 4332 DNA Artificial pPRO430-Infliximab_LC expression construct Sequence 20 7288 DNA Artificial pSOL-Infliximab expression construct Sequence 

1. A method of producing a gene product, the method comprising growing a culture of a host cell comprising an expression construct and further comprising at least one polynucleotide sequence encoding at least one gene product to be transcribed from an inducible promoter; wherein said expression construct comprises two or more inducible promoters, wherein at least one of said inducible promoters is responsive to an inducer that is different than the inducer of another of said inducible promoters, and wherein none of the inducible promoters is an inducible promoter selected from the group consisting of: a tetracycline-inducible promoter, a copper-inducible promoter, and a methionine-inducible promoter; and adding an inducer of at least one inducible promoter to the culture.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the expression construct is extrachromosomal.
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein each inducible promoter is selected from the group consisting of an L-arabinose-inducible promoter, a propionate-inducible promoter, a rhamnose-inducible promoter, a xylose-inducible promoter, a lactose-inducible promoter, and a promoter inducible by phosphate depletion.
 4. The method of claim 3, wherein at least one inducible promoter is selected from the group consisting of the araBAD promoter, the prpBCDE promoter, the rhaSR promoter, the xlyA promoter, the lacZYA promoter, and the phoA promoter.
 5. The method of claim 1, wherein the expression construct comprises at least one propionate-inducible promoter and at least one inducible promoter selected from the group consisting of an L-arabinose-inducible promoter, a rhamnose-inducible promoter, a xylose-inducible promoter, a lactose-inducible promoter, and a promoter inducible by phosphate depletion.
 6. The expression construct method of claim 5, wherein the propionate-inducible promoter is the prpBCDE promoter.
 7. The method of claim 5 comprising a nucleotide sequence having at least 80% sequence identity to at least 50 contiguous bases of nucleotides 4937 through 5185 of SEQ ID NO:15.
 8. The method of claim 1, wherein at least one inducible promoter is a propionate-inducible promoter and at least one other inducible promoter is an L-arabinose-inducible promoter.
 9. The method of claim 8 comprising a nucleotide sequence having at least 80% sequence identity to at least 50 contiguous bases of nucleotides 2818 through 3151 of SEQ ID NO:15, and at least 80% sequence identity to at least 50 contiguous bases of nucleotides 4937 through 5185 of SEQ ID NO:15.
 10. The method of claim 9 comprising SEQ ID NO:15.
 11. (canceled)
 12. The method of claim 11 wherein the host cell is a prokaryotic cell.
 13. The method of claim 12 wherein the host cell is E. coli.
 14. The method of claim 13 wherein the host cell further comprises one or more of the following: (a) a deletion of the araBAD genes; (b) an altered gene function of the araE and araFGH genes; (c) a lacY(A177C) gene; (d) a reduced gene function of the prpB and prpD genes; (e) a reduced gene function of the sbm/scpA-ygfD/argK-ygfGH/scpBC genes; (f) a reduced gene function of the gor and trxB genes; (g) a reduced gene function of the AscG gene; (h) a polynucleotide encoding a form of DsbC lacking a signal peptide; (i) a polynucleotide encoding Erv1p; and (j) a polynucleotide encoding a chaperone.
 15. The method of claim 13 wherein the host cell is E. coli ASE(DGH).
 16. (canceled)
 17. (canceled)
 18. The method of claim 1, wherein the method further comprises purifying the gene product from the culture. 19.-24. (canceled) 